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UPPEE  EGYPT: 


ITS   PEOPLE  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS. 


A  DESCRIPTIVE  ACCOUNT 

OF    THE 

MANNERS,   CUSTOMS,    SUPERSTITIONS,   AND   OCCUPATIONS   OF 

THE   PEOPLE  OF   THE   NILE   VALLEY,  THE   DESERT,  AND   THE   RED   SEA  COAST, 

WITH   SKETCHES    OF   THE   NATURAL   HISTORY   AND    GEOLOGY.  . 


BY 


C.   B.   KLUNZINGEE,   M.D., 

Formerly  Egyptian  Sanitary  Physician  at  Koseir,  on  the  Red  Sea ;  Member  of  the  Gesellschaf  t 
,     far  Erdkunde  zu  Berlin,  &c.  &c. 


WITH  A  PREFATORY  NOTICE 
BY   DK.   GEORG    SCHWEINFURTH, 

Author  of  "  The  Heart  of  Africa." 


NEW    YOEK: 
SCEIBNEE,    AEMSTKONG,    &    CO. 

1878. 


AUTHOE'S   PEEPACE. 


Mighty  is  the  stream  of  literature  which  since  ancient  times, 
but  especially  in  modern  times,  has  flowed  over  the  wonderful 
land  of  the  sacred  Nile,  but  we  are  still  far  from  being  able 
to  boast  of  possessing  a  complete  knowledge  of  even  Egypt 
proper.  For  the  truth  and  accuracy  of  his  descriptions  of 
its  modern  inhabitants  Lane  still  remains  unequalled,  but 
he  has  almost  exclusively  confined  himself  to  the  people  of 
the  capital;  on  the  subject  of  country  life,  and  especially  on 
Upper  Egypt,  we  possess  merely  the  reports  of  travellers. 
In  the  whole  of  Upper  Egypt  only  a  few  Europeans  have 
hitherto  settled,  and  these  are  almost  exclusively  Greek 
traders,  who  are  not  in  a  position  to  utilize  their  experiences 
by  giving  them  to  the  world;  still  less  is  this  to  be  expected 
of  the  natives  themselves.  Accurate  observations  and  judg- 
ments cannot  be  attained  by  a  bird's-eye  view,  but  only  by 
living  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  people  as  one  of  them- 
selves (like  Lane),  gradually  getting  acquainted  with  their 
manners,  customs,  and  religious  observances,  and  especially 
their  language,  and  for  this  a  fixed  abode  and  much  time, 
study,  and  self-denial  are  necessary. 

When  in  1863  I  left  Europe  with  the  special  object  of 
making  zoological  investigations  and  collections  on  the  Eed 
Sea,  I  resolved  not  to  confine  my  observations  to  animals, 
but  to  become  acquainted  with  my  whole  surroundings,  for, 

ivJ162891 


IV  AUTHOR  S  PREFACE. 

as  Humboldt  says,  one  can  only  enjoy  what  one  understands. 
Since  that  time,  from  1863  to  1869,  and,  with  a  break  of  a 
few  years  spent  in  Europe,  from  1872  to  1875,  I  lived  at 
the  little  Upper  Egyptian  seaport  of  Koseir  on  the  Red 
Sea,  as  sanitary  or  quarantine  doctor,  appointed  by  the 
Egyptian  government,  but  was  also  much  occupied  both 
on  private  and  official  business  in  the  neighbouring  portion 
of  the  Nile  valley,  corresponding  to  the  ancient  Thebaid, 
and  the  present  Tnudiriyeh  of  Keneh.  As  an  inhabitant  for 
many  years  of  a  small  town,  where,  so  to  speak,  I  formed 
one  of  a  family,  as  a  doctor  and  government  official,  and  as 
a  naturalist,  I  had  ample  opportunities  for  thoroughly 
studying  the  language,  and  for  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  country  and  the  people,  while  Europeans  who  dwell  in 
the  capital  find  it  very  difficult  to  pass  beyond  their  own 
circles  and  enter  those  of  the  native  inhabitants. 

My  lengthened  experiences  and  observations  I  have  now 
set  forth  in  this  book,  and  have  attempted  to  clothe  them 
in  a  dress  that  will  have  some  attractions  for  the  public. 
I  have  not  adopted  the  plan  of  giving  a  descriptive  account 
of  my  travels,  since  the  personality  of  the  writer  always 
obtrudes  itself  in  that  form  of  composition,  but  have  taken 
the  inquirer  by  the  hand,  and  thus  we  pass  together  from 
scene  to  scene.  The  comparison  of  the  modern  Egyptians 
with  the  ancient  appears  to  me  specially  interesting,  the 
more  so  as  the  inhabitants  of  Upper  Egypt  have  preserved 
the  ancient  type  and  many  customs  with  remarkable  purity. 
The  reader,  therefore,  may  always  have  Wilkinson's  Ancient 
Egyptians  at  his  hand. 

Portions  of  the  present  work  were  originally  published 
in  periodicals,  such  as  "Ausland,"  Westermann's  "Monats- 


NOTE  BY  THE  PUBLISHERS.  V 

hefte,"  and  the  " Zeitschrift  fur  Erdkunde/' but  these. por- 
tions have  been  revised  and  greatly  enlarged  by  observations 
made  during  my  second  stay  in  Egypt;  other  chapters  are 
entirely  new. 

C.  B.  KLUNZINGER 

Berlin,  November,  1876. 


NOTE    BY    THE    PUBLISHERS. 

This  translation  of  Dr.  Klunziger's  Work  has  been  prepared 
by  arrangement  with  the  author,  and  with  his  active  co-oper- 
ation and  assistance.  It  is  illustrated  by  additional  engrav- 
ings after  his  own  sketches,  which  do  not  appear  in  the 
German  edition.  The  Work  has  met  with  a  very  cordial 
reception  in  Germany,  where  the  press  has  bestowed  upon  it 
the  warmest  encomiums. 

Glasgow,  October,  1877. 


PEE  FACE 

BY    DE.    GEOEG    SCHWEINFUETH. 


KiNDKED  intellectual  tendencies  and  a  like  interest  in  science 
brought  myself  and  the  author  of  this  work  together  in  Cairo 
thirteen  years  ago,  and  in  a  short  time  united  us  by  the  bonds 
of  a  lasting  friendship.  When  we  first  met  in  the  city  of 
the  Caliphs,  I,  a  novice  on  African  soil,  had  still  to  make  my 
primary  studies,  while  the  German  physician  and  naturalist, 
whom  I  hunted  up  in  an  out-of-the-way  Arabic  quarter,  was 
already  far  advanced  in  the  language  and  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people. 

While  others  who  had  come  to  appropriate  one  thing  or 
another  from  the  foreign  world,  unwilling  to  resign  the  home 
comforts  of  hotel-life,  allowed  this  world  to  pass  before  their 
eyes  as  if  on  the  stage  of  a  theatre,  and  left  chance  to  deter- 
mine whither  and  how  far  their  intellectual  feelers  should 
extend.  Dr.  Klunzinger,  as  formerly  Burkhard,  "the  son  of 
the  Lutheran,"  and  Lane  of  blessed  memory,  lived  entirely 
among  the  believing  heirs  of  paradise.  In  modern  times  the 
life  of  Europeans  in  the  East  has  generally  assumed  such  a 
form,  that  one  may  have  lived  his  twenty  years  in  Egypt 
without  knowing  much  more  about  the  country  and  the 
people  than  may  be  found  set  down  in  any  one  of  a  hundred 
books  in  which  chamber  students  describe  to  us  things  they 
have  never  seen.  To  this  class  of  people  my  friend  did  not 
belong.  When  I  found  him  as  above  mentioned,  in  his  house 
of  unbumed  bricks,  diligently  practising  among  the  poor, 
surrounded  by  blind  and  lame  from  whose  lips  issued  many 


Vm  PKEFACE  BY  DR.   SCHWEINFURTH. 

a  blessing  on  the  self-sacrificing  and  disinterested  friend  of 
man,  while  from  the  hands  of  others  he  received  as  his  fee 
zoological  materials  for  his  studies,  I  found  a  companion  to 
look  up  to,  a  model  on  whom  to  gaze  with  admiration. 

Some  months  after  my  first  meeting  with  the  author,  when 
I  had  begun  those  travels  which  were  to  lead  me  in  the  course 
of  years  from  regions  little  known  to  others  altogether  un- 
explored, I  arrived  at  that  secluded  seaport  where  my  friend 
had  meantime  settled  as  sanitary  physician.  On  three  dif- 
ferent occasions  I  was  hospitably  received  in  his  house,  and 
passed  many  weeks  by  his  side,  introduced  by  an  incom- 
parable teacher  into  the  Arabic  world,  and  at  the  same  time 
made  acquainted  with  the  secrets  of  that  subterranean 
wonder- world,  the  corals.  For  many  years  after  that  did 
my  friend  labour  devotedly  in  this  remote  corner  of  the 
globe  on  behalf  of  science  and  for  the  good  of  suffering 
humanity.  The  inhabitants  of  Koseir  still  preserve  towards 
him  the  most  grateful  remembrance,  and  a  brilliant  testimony 
to  the  love  and  respect  which  he  was  able  to  gain  among 
them  was  given  by  the  elders  of  this  town,  when  in  a  special 
petition  they  prayed  the  supreme  sanitary  authorities  to 
renominate  him  as  physician  on  his  return  as  a  private 
individual  after  a  few  years'  absence  in  Europe. 

Solitary  and  without  companionship  in  his  researches,  but 
by  no  means  turning  his  back  with  self-sufficiency  upon  what 
society  he  could  avail  himself  of,  mean  although  the  garb 
might  be  in  which  it  showed  itself,  and  far  from  puffing  him- 
self up  with  the  pride  of  being  "the  only  living  man  among 
shades,"  he  lived  here  a  man  among  men.  Among  fishermen 
and  mariners,  among  pilgrims  and  camel-drivers,  among 
petty  dealers  and  lowly  scribes,  our  friend  of  humanity  has 
sacrificed  the  best  years  of  his  life.  The  man  of  learning, 
the  naturalist  above  all,  whose  ideal  everywhere  is  nature, 
can  never  degenerate  in  the  wilderness. 

If  some  of  us  view  with  disgust  the  life  of  the  upper  and 


PKEFACE  BY  DE.   SCHWEINFURTH.  IX 

highest  classes  among  the  modern  Egyptians,  the  cause  is 
not  far  to  seek.  All  their  thoughts  and  actions  centre  on 
the  vile  greed  of  money  and  shameless  bondage  to  Mammon; 
things  which  cannot  find  an  equivalent  in  hard  cash  are 
beyond  the  pale  of  their  understanding.  Here  we  see  men 
without  character,  without  national  feeling,  without  con- 
science, from  cowardice  as  incapable  of  crime  as  from  mean- 
spiritedness  they  are  incapable  of  any  noble  action.  But  we 
should  be  guilty  of  manifest  injustice  in  judging  of  the 
character  of  the  people  were  we  to  allow  our  disgust  for  a 
class  to  set  us  against  the  whole.  If  the  poor  appear  covet- 
ous, the  oppressed  cowardly,  that  by  no  means  proves  that 
in  the  totality  of  their  good  qualities  they  might  not  be 
placed  far  above  us  Europeans,  who  under  a  less  favourable 
sky  enjoy  immensely  more  favourable  social  conditions.  But 
in  order  to  hold  the  balance  quite  true  we  must  always,  in 
forming  our  judgments,  keep  in  mind  to  compare  like  with 
like;  and  in  this  most  observers  fail,  for  it  is  as  a  rule  the 
fortunate  lot  of  our  middle  classes  that  they  have  before  their 
e^^es  when  they  venture  to  describe  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  common  people  of  Egypt.  Such  writers  have  often 
indeed  no  thorough  knowledge  of  our  own  working  classes. 
In  fact,  however,  the  Fellahin  are  only  to  be  compared  with 
the  dregs  of  our  lowest  social  strata,  and  looked  at  from  this 
point  of  view,  they  cannot  but  appear  to  us  worthy  of  ad- 
miration. Deprived  of  almost  all  means  of  self-cultivation, 
and  without  any  pattern  of  morality  above  them  worthy  of 
being  imitated,  they  grow  up  quite  like  savages;  nevertheless, 
we  see  them  excelling  in  several  virtues  which  only  the 
wisest  among  us  practise,  and  that  only  with  an  effort. 
Their  life  is  the  most  regular  and  orderly  possible,  and  they 
are  the  most  courteous  and  mannerly  people  in  the  world. 

Apart  from  his  intimacy  with  a  large  number  of  people 
belonging  to  the  middle  and  lower  classes  in  various  parts 
of  Egypt,  the  author  naturally  enjoyed  also  special  privileges 


X  PREFACE  BY  DR.   SCHWEINFURTH. 

as  government  physician.  It  is  part  of  the  diagnostic  pene- 
tration of  a  doctor  to  be  able  to  sound  the  depths  of  the 
human  heart.  Such  knowledge  and  experience  as  may  be 
thus  obtained  ought  not  to  remain  the  property  of  one  man. 
As  early  as  my  first  visit  I  recommended  my  friend  to  cul- 
tivate the  field  of  Egyptian  manners  and  customs  so  long 
lying  fallow,  advising  him  to  take  Lane  as  his  model,  and 
produce  an  appendix  to  the  Bsedeker  of  the  future. 

My  wishes  have  been  fulfilled.  Egypt,  too,  has  now  got 
its  Bsedeker,  a  guide  through  the  ancient  land  of  wonders 
that  put3  all  previous  guide-books  quite  in  the  shade,  and 
Klunzinger's  descriptions  will  in  future  be  an  indispensable 
addition  to  the  library  of  every  Nile  tourist,  however  small 
it  may  be. 

More  than  forty  years  have  elapsed  since  Edward  Lane 
gave  his  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modern  Egyptians 
to  the  world.  His  descriptions  are  unsurpassed;  they  have 
acquired  indeed  in  the  course  of  years  a  certain  reputation 
of  classicality,  and  the  best  proof  of  the  impossibility  of 
superseding  them  is  the  circumstance  that  no  author  has 
ventured  to  follow  his  footsteps  by  an  independent  path. 

Great,  however,  is  the  number  of  works  which  have  ap- 
peared within  the  period  mentioned,  having  for  their  subject 
the  land  of  Egypt  and  its  people.  "Whole  ranges  of  volumes 
have  been  entirely  filled  with  court  histories  and  palace 
intrigues  of  the  time  of  Mehemed  Ali,  narrated  often  by 
people  who  themselves  had  come  to  ruin  in  the  empty  show 
and  bustle  of  the  world  of  the  great.  Then  came  fantastically 
tricked  out  romances  and  gossipy  anecdotes  dished  up  in  the 
hotels  of  Cairo,  these  productions  appearing  as  "  Secrets  of 
Egypt,"  and  running  through  the  world  as  cheap  railway 
reading.  A  flood  of  cursory  Eecollections  of  Travel,  in  which 
experiences  during  a  three  months'  voyage  by  dahabiyeh 
were  related — or  even  less  than  this — alternated  with  "svorks 
on  special  subjects  written  by  hands  possessed  both  of  know- 


PEEFACE  BY  DR.   SCHWEINFURTH.  XI 

ledge  and  skill.  The  German  literature  of  travel  has  no 
reason  to  be  ashamed  so  far  as  concerns  the  latter  class, 
and  works  such  as  those  of  a  Von  Kremer,  a  Liitke,  or  a 
Stephan  have  enjoyed  a  favourable  reception  in  the  widest 
circles;  yet,  in  the  study  of  popular  customs,  none  of  these 
could  pretend  to  rival  the  descriptions  of  a  man  who,  like 
Dr.  Klunzinger,  has  devoted  so  much  time  and  industry 
to  this  subject,  and  whose  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  language 
of  every-day  life  has  rarely  been  equalled  in  Egypt  itself.^ 

The  present  work,  which,  even  in  its  external  form  and 
its  arrangement  of  matter,  is  throughout  new  and  peculiar, 
is  indeed  to  be  recommended  as  a  gift  to  the  inquiring  public, 
and  as  filling  up  a  still  remaining  blank  in  our  knowledge 
of  modern  Egypt.  Lane,  however  trustworthy  and  complete 
his  descriptions  may  be,  concerned  himself  in  the  main  with 
such  conditions  of  life  as  exist  in  a  large  town  only.  A  weak 
point  in  his  work  is  its  insufficient  description  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Christians.  His  field  of  observation  was  the  old  and 
splendid  city  of  the  Caliphs,  with  the  innumerable  festivals 
and  the  pleasure-loving  populace  of  an  absolute  monarch's 
capital.  ^gypto-Arabic  manners  and  customs  are  in  Klun- 
zinger's  sketches  clothed  in  a  slighter  garb,  but  the  pictures 
appear  all  the  more  plain  and  natural. 

It  is  not  the  author's  way  to  obtrude  himself  upon  his 
readers  as  a  censor  of  morals,  to  draw  judgments  and  con- 
clusions from  the  relations  he  describes  where  the  actual 
facts  enable  any  one  to  form  a  judgment  for  himself.  And 
he  has  done  well  in  avoiding  this  dangerous  rock,  seeing  the 
ideas  of  men  are  as  multiform  as  their  heads.  At  least  he 
escapes  in  this  way  the  scornful  remark  of  the  stay-at-home 
wiseacre  who  would  tell  him  that  there  is  no  reason  for  cen- 
sure, if  one  who  has  spent  the  best  years  of  his  life  among 


^  Dr.  Klunzinger  is  preparing  for  immediate  publication  an  extensive  work 
on  the  common  Arabic  idiom  employed  in  Egypt. 


XU  PREFACE  BY  DR.   SCHWEINFURTH. 

people  at  such  a  stage  of  civilization   shows  himself  but 
little  practised  in  logical  thinking. 

The  author's  chief  endeavour  was  that  the  facts  should 
speak.  A  soul  overflowing  with  poetry  will  perhaps  miss 
the  descriptions  of  nature  which  are  usually  employed  as 
the  setting  for  a  picture  of  manners,  and  if  so  also  the  idyllic 
atmosphere  with  which  our  writers,  often  infected  with  the 
"  world-pain,"  or  some  other  superstition,  think  they  enliven 
their  descriptions.  In  the  matter-of-fact  eyes  of  an  investi- 
gator, such  as  a  physician  or  zoologist,  the  All  has  no 
permanence;  as  his  scalpel  separates  the  fibres  of  the  most 
mysterious  tissues  in  which  the  unconscious  life  pulses,  so 
his  microscope  throws  light  on  a  world  of  riddles  of  which 
the  common  eye  has  no  idea.  I  congratulate  my  friend  that 
he  has  not  fallen  into  the  mistake  of  his  contemporaries, 
namely,  of  ascribing  to  his  characters  too  refined,  and  per- 
haps altogether  imaginary  feelings,  such  as  in  their  lowly 
sphere  of  life,  and  in  the  fight  and  struggle  for  a  subsistence, 
they  could  not  find  time  to  have.  Let  others  copy  him — 
and  how  easy  will  it  now  be  to  patch  up  a  novel  with  Egyp- 
tian local  colouring  by  copying  such  a  model. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

FOUR   DAYS    IN   A   COUNTRY   TOWN. 

First  Day. — General  Survey,  1.  Entrance  into  a  Town — The  Houses,  3.. 
Street  Traffic— Donkey  boys,  5.  The  Great  Man,  8.  The  Bazar,  9.  In- 
dustrial Survey,  11.  Survey  of  the  People,  16.  Dress,  17.  Types  of  the 
Market,  20.  A  Street  Quarrel,  23.  The  Market  and  the  Women,  23.  A 
Coffee-house,  24.  Greek  Tavern,  27.  Native  Beer-shops,  28.  Dancing 
Girls,  30.     Night  and  its  Accompaniments,  32. 

Second  Day. — Weekly  Market,  33.  A  Slave  Market. — Slavery,  34.  Chance 
Meeting  with  Women,  40.  Visit  to  the  Interior  of  a  House,  42.  (The 
Courtyard,  42.  The  Kitchen,  43.  Rooms  on  the  Courtyard,  44.  The  Re- 
ception-room, 45.  Taking  Coffee,  47.  The  Terrace,  48.  The  Harem,  48.) 
Ancient  Egyptian  Dwelling-house,  49.  Summons  to  a  Sick  Woman,  49. 
Revelations,  50.     A  Dinner,  54.     Bill  of  Fare,  59.     After  Dinner,  60. 

Third  Day.— A  Public  Office,  61.  Coptic  Scribes,  62.  Officials  of  the  Prov- 
inces, 64.  Taxes  and  other  Burdens,  67.  Official  Procedure,  71.  The 
Country  Judge,  75.  The  Hakim  Pasha,  80.  A  Coptic  Meal  during  a 
Fast,  83. 

Fourth  Day.— The  Coptic  Church  and  the  Copts,  85.  The  Bath,  91.  The 
Dogs,  94.  Boys  and  Girls  at  Play,  95.  School,  97.  A  Mosque,  98.  A 
Saint's  Mausoleum,  103.     A  Burial-place,  105. 

CHAPTER   II. 

TRAVELLINa   BY   LAND   AND    RIVER. 

Preparations,  107.  The  Embarkation,  108.  A  Voyage  on  the  Nile,  111. 
Eating  and  Drinking  on  Board,  116.  A  Journey  by  Land,  117.  An  Inn^ 
118.  A  Village,  120.  The  Country  in  the  Circle  of  the  Year,  125.  The 
Overflow  of  the  Nile,  125.  After  the  Inundation,  129.  The  Egyptian 
Calendar,  130.  The  Time  of  the  Small  and  of  the  Great  Sun,  133.  Cham- 
asin  and  Early  Summer,  133.  Summer  Culture,  134,  Water-Raising 
Apparatus,  135.  A  Water-wheel,  136.  Harvest,  138.  A  Palm  Grove, 
139.  A  Garden,  140.  Field  and  Garden  Plants,  142.  The  Gardens  and 
Cultivated  Plants  of  the  Ancients,  143.  The  Wild  Plants,  144.  The 
Animal  World,  145.     Monuments  of  Antiquity,  155. 

CHAPTER   III. 

WORKING   DAYS   AND    HOLIDAYS,    DAYS   OF   JUBILEE   AND   DAYS   OF 
MOURNING. 

Working-day  Life  of  the  Common  People,  158.  Life  of  the  Women,  161.  The 
Family,  166.     Friday,  171.      Ramadan,  171.     The  Great  and  the  Little 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

Feast,  176.  Feast  of  the  Saints,  178.  Easter  Week,  182.  The  Night  of  the 
Drop,  184.  The  Nerus  Day,  184.  Birth-day  Ceremonies,  185.  Ceremonies 
Preliminary  to  Family  Festivals,  187.  Religious  Entertainments,  191. 
Entertainments  of  the  Women,  193.  Circumcision,  194.  Marriage,  195. 
Funeral  Ceremonies,  199. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE   DESERT. 

1.  Ride  Through  the  Desert. — Point  of  Departure,  204.    The  Camel,  205. 

Provender,  208.  Loading  and  Saddling,  209.  Mounting,  212.  Caravan 
Donkeys,  214.  On  the  March,  215.  Camping  at  Night,  218.  The  Mor- 
ning Camp,  220.  Day  March,  221.  Marching  at  Night,  225.  The  Littoral 
Slope  of  the  Mountains,  228. 

2.  The  Nature  of  the  Desert. — Configuration  of  the  Mountains,  229.     Rain 

and  Rain-water  Streams,  230.  Geological  Constitution,  233.  Springs,  235. 
Vegetation,  237.  The  Animals  of  the  Desert,  240.  The  Naturalist  in  the 
Desert,  246. 

3.  Inhabitants  of  the  Desert. — History  of  the  Desert,  248.  The  Ababdeh, 
250.  Dress  of  the  Ababdeh,  252.  Of  the  Ababdeh  in  General,  254. 
Dwellings  and  Household  Matters,  256.  A  Life  of  Hunger,  258.  Employ- 
ments,. 259.  Intellectual  Qualities  and  Capacities,  262.  Language,  263. 
Religion,  264.    Family  Life,  265.    Wedding  Festivities,  266.    Funerals,  267. 

CHAPTER  V. 

ON   THE   RED   SEA. 

The  Red  Sea,  268.  The  Desert  Shore,  269.  Ancient  Settlements  and  Sea-port 
Towns,  270.  History  of  the  Sea-port  of  Koseir,  271.  The  Town,  277. 
Population,  277.  The  Markets,  278.  The  Water,  281.  Industry,  282. 
The  "  Courts"  and  the  Trade,  283.  Custom-house,  285.  The  Government 
Grain-store,  286.  The  Port,  288.  The  Mole,  289.  Arrival  and  Departure 
of  Vessels,  290.  The  Vessels  of  the  Red  Sea,  292.  The  Ship's  Company, 
295.  Navigation,  298.  Use  of  the  Compass  and  Stars,  300.  Mariner's 
Calendar,  301.  Traffic,  303.  Fishermen,  303.  Preparation  of  the  Fish, 
307.  Other  Marine  Animals  Made  Use  of,  308.  The  Pearl  Fishery,  310. 
The  Coast  Bedouins,  315.    The  Pilgrimage  to  Meccah,  318.    Quarantine,  328. 

CHAPTER  VL 

THE   NATURAL   TREASURES   OF  THE   RED   SEA. 

The  Tropical  Sea— Ebb  and  Flow,  334.  On  the  Shore,  335.  Preparing  for  a 
Visit  to  the  Reef,  340.  The  Reef,  341.  Outer  Shore  Zone,  342.  The  Inner 
Shore  or  Sea-grass  Zone,  345.  The  Division  into  Zones,  348.  Stylophora 
or  Coralline  Zone,  348.  Joys  and  Sorrows  of  the  Naturalist,  349.  The 
Inhabitants  of  the  Stylophora  Zone,  352.  Life  in  the  Pools,  353.  A  Noc- 
turnal Visit  to  the  Reef,  356.  A  Block  of  Stone,  356.  Reef  Pools,  358. 
Fish  of  the  Pools,  360.  Fauna  of  the  Stylophora  Bushes,  361.  Transition 
or  Prsecoral  Region,  362.  Coral  Zone  Proper,  or  Surf  Zone,  363.  Fauna 
of  the  Surf  Zone,  364.  The  Inhabitants  of  the  Corals,  366.  The  Coral 
Slope,  367.     The  Corals,  370.     The  Fishes,  373. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  XV 

CHAPTER  VIL 

POPULAR  BELIEFS   AND   SUPERSTITIONS. 

The  Ginn,  382.  The  Man  of  Science  and  the  Magicians,  383.  The  Magic- 
books,  385.  The  Compact  with  Iron  and  Lead,  385.  Receipt  for  Summon- 
ing Spirits,  386.  A  Love-charm,  387.  The  Magic  Mirror,  387.  Other 
Magical  Rites,  388.  Fear  of  Spirits,  389.  Talismans,  390.  The  Envious 
Eye,  391.  The  People  of  Blessing.  The  Saints,  392,  States  of  Ecstasy, 
394.  The  Sar,  395.  Popular  Medicine,  397.  The  Animals  in  Popular 
Belief,  400.  Alchemy,  403.  Religio -astronomical  Fantasies,  404.  Astro- 
logy, 405.  Geomantists  and  Gypsies,  406.  The  Future,  406.  The  Day  of 
Judgment,  407. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAOE 

Koseir,  looking  over  the  Market-place,     ....        Frontispiece. 

The  Caravanserai  of  Bir  Amber, 204 

Koseir  from  the  Sea, 276' 

Travelling  Dervishes  and  Free  Negro  of  Darfur, 326 

ILLUSTRATIONS   IN   TEXT. 

Manfalut,  on  the  Nile, xvi 

Shop  of  a  Retail  Dealer, 10 

A  Borer  of  Pipe  Stems, .         .12 

Woman  and  Child  of  Upper  Egypt, 53 

Coptic  Scribe, 63 

Mausoleum  of  a  Saint, 104 

Pigeon-houses, 120 

Dancing-girl, 189 

Camel's  Saddle, 210 

An  Ababdeh  Man, 251 

Ababdeh  Boys, 252 

Ababdeh  "Woman, .  253 

Ababdeh  Tent, 257 

Ababdeh  Tobacco  Pipes, 267 

Mariner's  Lute, 297 

Black  Fisherman  making  Thread  with  the  Spindle,           ....  305 
Native  Fisherman  spinning  Twine,            .         .         .   ,      .         .         .         .305 

Vessel  used  in  the  Pearl-fishery, 310 

Tent  of  Coast-Bedouins, 316 

FeUah  Pilgrims  at  Koseir,        .        .        . 320 


Manfalut,  on  the  Nile. 


UPPER    EGYPT 


CHAPTEE  I. 
FOUE   DAYS    IN   A    COUNTEY   TOWN. 

FIUST    DAY. 

We  are  standing  upon  a  mound  of  rubbish  entirely  destitute 
of  vegetation,  above  us  the  deep  blue  cloudless  vault  of 
heaven ;  a  gentle  north  wind  guards  us  from  being  scorched 
by  the  glowing  rays  of  a  vertical  sun;  so  dry  and  transparent 
is  the  atmosphere  that  the  eye  can  wander  unimpeded  to  the 
distant  horizon,  and  take  in  every  detail  of  the  surrounding 
landscape.  Verdant  crops,  interspersed  at  intervals  by  groves 
of  palm-trees,  clothe  the  level  valley  that  stretches  away  to- 
wards the  north ;  and  through  it  a  large  river  pursues  its  wind- 
incr  course,  lendinor  moisture  and  fertilization  to  the  arid  soil. 
Eastwards  and  westwards  the  green  valley  is  bounded — the 
line  of  separation  being  sharply  defined — by  the  bare,  yellow- 
ish-gray desert,  which  sometimes  loses  itself  in  gently  rising 
plateaus  over  which  the  eye  cannot  reach,  sometimes  termin- 
ates suddenly  in  precipitous  rocky  hills. 

At  our  feet  lies  a  confused  and  labyrinthine  collection  of 
houses  forming  a  considerable  town.  The  houses,  built  of 
crude  unburnt  bricks,  are  mostly  one  story  high,  flat-roofed 
pierced  with  few  apertures  for  light,  and  often  growing  nar- 
rower towards  the  top  in  the  antique  style.  Amidst  these  rise 
a  number  of  tall  minarets,  large  cupolas  with  their  vaulted 
roofs,  and  neat  quadrangular  battlemented  towers,  the  last 
having  their  walls  pierced  with  numerous  holes  in  which 
the  pigeons  carry  on  their  busy  traffic,  while  the  grayish 


:^'c/'r','      ''^'^ '''''''    UPPER   EGYPT. 

clay-colour  of  the  houses  is  richly  relieved  by  the  perennial 
green  of  the  palms  and  other  trees  interspersed  among 
them.  Most  of  the  buildings  show  signs  of  decay,  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  town  is  in  ruins.  With 
difficulty  we  make  out  streets  and  thoroughfares  in  this  laby- 
rinth, the  houses,  standing  apart  from  each  other,  and  being 
arranged  in  rows;  and  here  and  there  larcjer  areas  are  left 
free  from  buildings.  In  these  open  spaces  we  next  observe 
the  thronorinof  and  movement  of  human  traffic  like  the 
globules  in  the  capillary  blood-vessels. 

In  the  general  murmur  arising  from  this  mass  of  human 
dwellings  the  ear  can  distinguish  the  harsh  barking  of 
numerous  dogs,  the  trumpet-like  and  painful  bray  of  asses, 
the  angry  roar  of  stubborn  camels,  the  shouts  and  calls  of 
street-boys  at  play,  and  the  warnings  of  the  scampering 
donkey-boys;  while  from  the  markets  rise  the  ceaseless  cries 
of  the  brokers  and  petty  dealers,  from  the  battlements  of  the 
towers  the  clear  voice  of  the  muezzin  calling  to  prayer,  and 
now  and  again  we  catch  also  the  quavering  strains  of  some 
love-sick  youth,  or  the  feast- enlivening  notes  of  a  pipe  with 
an  accompaniment  of  drums  and  clapping  of  hands. 

No  rumble  of  carriages  is  heard  as  in  the  busy  North ;  tall 
chimneys  have  not  yet  gained  the  victory  over  the  towers 
of  palaces,  temples,  and  pigeon-houses;  the  voices  of  nien 
and  animals  are  not  yet  drowned  by  the  buzz  of  machinery, 
or  the  knocking  and  hammering  of  manufacturing  industry. 

In  a  shady  grove  in  front  of  the  town  a  man  with  a 
full  beard  and  expressive  features  is  seriously  and  quietly 
spreading  a  carpet  on  the  ground ;  his  head  is  covered  with 
a  large  roll  of  linen,  the  turban ;  his  body,  bronzed  of  a  deep 
brown  colour,  is  enveloped  in  a  full  toga  with  wide  sleeves, 
reaching  down  to  his  feet;  he  takes  off  his  red  slippers,  steps 
devoutly  and  composedly  on  the  carpet,  turns  his  face  towards 
the  south-east  according  to  an  invariable  rule,  and  prostrates 
himself  before  the  Almighty.  In  another  spot  sits  or  squats 
a  son  of  the  country,  who  in  contemplative  mood  imbibes 
from  a  long  pipe  and  a  tiny  cup  the  permitted  luxuries  of 
tobacco  and  coffee.     Round  the  walls  of  the  house  before  us 


ENTRANCE   INTO   THE   CITY.  3 

a  ghost  like  being  steals,  the  whole  figure  from  the  crown  of 
the  head  to  the  feet — which  are  alone  visible — carefully 
enveloped  in  a  wide  mantle,  which  falls  in  numerous  folds; 
we  are  told  that  it  is  one  of  the  fair  sex. 

We  have  seen  enough,  even  though  we  had  been  carried 
away  by  a  genie  in  the  darkness  of  night  and  set  down  here 
on  this  mound  of  debris,  to  let  us  know  that  we  are  standing 
before  a  town  in  the  Mohammedan  East,  far  away  from  Cen- 
tral Europe,  much  farther  even  for  the  imagination  to  reach 
than  the  land  of  the  West  beyond  the  Atlantic.  We  are 
on  the  classic  soil  of  the  primeval  Nile,  far  up  in  the  south  of 
Egypt,  where  the  Mercury  of  the  nineteenth  century  has 
indeed  begun  already  to  stretch  out  his  wire  feelers,  where 
lie  goes  and  comes  occasionally  with  his  steam-pinioned  sandals 
on  road  and  liquid  highway,  leading  after  him  the  narrow- 
trousered  bearers  of  civilization,  but  where  he  does  not  yet 
feel  himself  at  home,  and  where  the  people  rejoice  in  their 
aboriginal  state  of  existence. 

ENTRANCE   INTO   A   TOWN— THE    HOUSES 

We  descend  and  make  our  way  towards  the  confused 
mass  of  houses.  No  lampart  surrounds  the  town,  but  the 
outermost  houses  form  a  close  barrier,  in  which  here  a 
regular  archway,  there  an  open  street,  there  again  a  narrow 
doorway  affords  an  entrance,  or  a  ruinous  building  forms 
a  breach  which  no  one  thinks  of  building  up.  The  best 
way  is  to  follow  the  raised  causeway,  wliich  winds  along 
towards  the  town,  and  during  the  time  when  the  river  is 
high  and  the  country  around  covered  with  water,  conducts 
the  passenger  without  danger  into  the  midst  of  the  houses. 
The  street  into  which  we  enter  is  not  much  broader  than  the 
causeway,  which  barely  allows  two  riders  to  pass.  It  leads 
us  gradually  onwards,  widening  and  narrowing,  twisting  and 
turning,  sinking  and  rising.  The  walls  of  the  houses  display 
little  of  geometrical  accuracy ;  the  line  of  direction  is  often 
broken  and  bent,  though  each  individual  house  has  an  approxi- 
mately rectangular  type. 


4  UPPER  EGYPT. 

In  such  a  provincial  town  the  houses  are  seldom  of  more 
than  one  story;  nothing  meets  the  gaze  but  a  bare  gray  wall 
of  clay,  seldom  plastered,  and  often  common  to  a  whole  stretch 
of  houses.  Very  different  are  the  houses  here  from  those  of 
Cairo,  with  their  numerous  projecting  windows;  here  we  see 
little  externally  but  a  few  small  air-holes,  and  even  these  are 
mostly  closed  by  a  wooden  lattice.  In  this  way  the  inte- 
rior is  shut  off  and  secluded  from  the  outer  world.  Air  and 
light  enter  the  rooms  from  the  court-yard,  which  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  the  house.  The  wall  is  constructed  of  rough  un- 
burned  bricks  of  a  lono^ish  rectangular  form,  such  as  those  used 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians  for  tlieir  private  dwellings,  and  then 
always  stamped  with  the  government  mark.  These  bricks, 
still  called  by  their  ancient  name  tub,  are  a  material  suited 
only  for  rainless  districts  such  as  this ;  a  heavy  rain  of  some 
duration  would  soon  convert  a  town  so  built  into  a  ruinous 
heap,  a  convincing  proof  that  the  climate  of  Upper  Egypt  in 
ancient  times  was  quite  as  dry  as  at  the  present. 

Two  things,  however,  arrest  attention — the  gateway  of  the 
house  and  the  pigeon-tower,  which  adjoins  or  surmounts  so 
many  of  the  buildings.  The  sides  and  top  of  the  gateway  must 
possess  a  certain  amount  of  solidity,  which  is  secured  by  the 
use  of  squared  stones,  burned  bricks,  and  cross-beams,  and  ad- 
vantage is  taken  of  these  to  produce  at  the  same  time  some- 
thing of  architectural  ornament,  by  the  interchange  of  colours 
and  a  kind  of  mosaic  arrangement.  Less  success  is  attained 
when  attempts  at  painting  or  sculpture  are  made,  the  Arabic 
artist  only  succeeding  in  producing  hideous  childish  cari- 
catures. The  Hadj,  that  is,  one  who  has  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  is  fond  of  distinguishing  his  house  by  such  bizarre 
gate-paintings.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  also  the  pil- 
grimage to  a  temple  was  an  exploit  that  was  painted  on  tlie 
houses.  To  neutralize  the  glance  of  the  envious  it  is  common 
to  put  quotations  from  the  Koran  over  the  entrance  to  the 
house;  and  to  turn  aside  the  evil-eye,  a  stuffed  monster, 
such  as  a  crocodile,  or  it  may  be  an  aloe  plant,  is  often  fixed 
above  the  entrance.  The  ancient  Egyptians  were  likewise 
in  the  habit  of  putting  inscriptions  and  symbols  of  good 


PIGEON- TOWERS,    STREET  TRAFFIC.  O 

omen  in  the  same  place.  In  the  middle  of  the  large  gate, 
which  is  only  opened  to  admit  objects  of  large  size,  there  is 
usually  a  small  door  through  which  persons  and  the  smaller 
animals  pass  out  and  in. 

The  pigeon-towers,  which  are  either  placed  in  groups  on 
the  tops  of  the  houses,  or  rise  singly  by  themselves,  now  in 
the  shape  of  cubes,  now  narrowing  towards  the  top,  after  the 
style  of  the  ancient  temples,  form  a  large — often  indeed  the 
largest — portion  of  tlie  buildings.  They  give  to  the  houses 
of  the  towns  and  villages  of  Upper  Egypt  a  characteristic  and 
distinguished  appearance.  Chimneys  are  wholly  wanting, 
and  in  their  stead  are  erected  on  the  tops  of  many  houses 
short  sloping  structures  of  boards  projecting  above  the  roof, 
and  having  a  vertical  side  open  towards  the  north,  to  catch 
the  cooling  wind  and  afford  a  shade;  such  was  also  the 
practice  among  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

STREET   TRAFFIC — DONKEY-BOYS. 

In  the  provincial  town  the  Old  World  and  the  New  have 
not  yet,  as  in  the  capital,  come  into  dangerous  collision. 
Here  none  of  that  hurried  driving  and  running  is  seen, 
none  of  those  carriages  that  whirl  noisily  along,  and  may 
have  bumped  the  back  of  the  pedestrian  before  he  has 
had  time  to  distinguish  the  warning  cries  of  the  driver. 
Everything  proceeds  at  a  measured  pace;  and  if,  at  any 
time  when  lost  in  thouglit,  a  person  suddenly  feels  the  grinning 
jaws  of  a  camel  in  his  neck,  or  a  donkey  running  lightly 
along  treads  on  his  heels,  he  has  always  time  to  step  aside, 
if  the  circumspect  beasts  do  not  do  so  of  themselves.  The 
nearer  we  approach  the  chief  centre  of  traffic — the  market- 
place—  the  greater  grows  the  bustle.  A  push,  a  kick, 
or  a  collision  with  some  one  of  our  fellow-men,  demon- 
strates to  us  the  existence  of  a  non-ego.  Behind  us  we 
hear  youthful  voices  shouting  nearer  and  nearer  to  our  ear, 
and  warning  us  to  take  care  of  our  back,  our  legs,  our  head, 
and  whatever  about  us  is  liable  to  be  broken.  These  are 
the  famous  donkey-boys,  who,  themselves  running  behind. 


b  UPPER   EGYPT. 

are  driving  a  company  of  riders  at  a  gallop  through  the  bust- 
ling crowds  and  narrow  streets  to  the  place  of  their  destina- 
tion. The  somewhat  sluggish  disposition  of  their  long-eared 
charges  is  animated  by  continued  cudgelling,  or  if  the  blows 
fall  harmlessly  on  a  hide  rendered  callous  V.y  long  custom, 
a  stick  is  driven  into  their  sores,  which  are  thus  continually 
kept  open.  At  the  same  time  plenty  of  abuse  is  poured 
out  upon  the  animal,  the  favourite  epithets  "son  of  a  dog," 
''son  of  a  Christian,"  "son  of  a  Jew,"  being  followed  by  a 
prolonged  emphatic  "Ha,  Ha"  such  as  only  a  genuine  Arab 
is  able  to  produce,  and  then  by  a  strong  push  against  the 
lean  hind-quarters  of  the  beast,  which  is  thus  driven  forwards 
and  sideways.  The  bold  notion  comes  into  our  head  that 
we  will  also  mount  a  donkey;  but  the  donkey-boys  that  have 
their  stand  hard  by  are  quicker  than  the  thought.  Already 
half  a  dozen  have  surrounded  us  before  we  have  made  u|) 
our  mind.  Rescue  or  flight  is  no  longer  possible;  a  speedy 
choice  alone  remains.  An  angry  glance  around,  a  stick 
brandished  threateningly,  and  the  quarrelling,  scuffling 
crowd  around  our  person  is  scattered,  towards  which  result 
the  boy  of  our  selection  has  effectively  contributed. 

The  donkey- driver,  throughout  the  whole  of  Egypt,  is  the 
same  brazen-faced  poltroon,  but  at  the  same  time  a  really 
good-natured  fellow  so  soon  as  one  has  become  better 
acquainted  with  him.  In  the  provinces  of  the  interior  he 
has  fewer  opportunities  for  cultivating  his  linguistic  talent 
than  in  the  capital;  here  he  does  not  address  us  in  the 
rich  Alexandrian  mosaic  language  of  the  lingua  franca — 
"Nigi  ya  onusyo,  voulez  ride  good  esel,  un  abrico  theyih, 
bono,"  which  means  "shall  we  come,  oh  sir;  will  you  ride 
good  donkey,  a  donkey  good  good."  The  donkey-boys  are 
wonderfully  quick  at  detecting  the  nationality  of  a  travellei*, 
and  when  offering  their  donkeys  for  hire  regularly  call  them 
— of  course  only  for  the  occasion — by  the  name  of  some  pub- 
lic man  belonging  to  the  same  country  as  the  stranger.  An 
Englishman  accordingly  may  find  himself  urged  to  accept 
the  services  of  "John  Bright"  as  a  German  would  be  offered 
those  of  "  Bismarck." 


DONKEY-BOYS.  7 

Well,  we  are  now  firmly  seated,  and  shoot  forwards  with 
hanging  reins,  but  require  to  be  constantly  on  the  alert  to 
preserve  our  equilibrium,  since  the  vis  a  tergo  of  the  cudgel- 
wielder  falls  now  to  right,  now  to  left,  and  the  latter  end  of 
the  beast  we  bestride  always  turns  suddenly  and  instinctively 
to  tlie  opposite  side  to  that  on  which  the  blows  fall.  Scarcely 
has  our  donkey  begun  to  trip  along  in  his  not  uncomfortable 
trot  when  a  general  stoppage  of  the  current  of  traflSc  in  the 
street  brings  him  to  a  sudden  halt.  A  camel  that  carries 
upon  his  ribs  a  load  projecting  at  each  side  like  a  pair  of 
expanded  wings  has  failed  to  keep  right  in  the  middle  when 
turning  the  coiner  at  a  bend  of  the  street,  allowing  space  only 
for  the  width  of  his  own  body,  and  so  has  struck  against 
the  corner.  He  has  accordingly  to  be  pulled  back  for  some 
paces,  and  gradualh^  led  into  the  middle  of  the  street. 
Immediately  after  the  removal  of  this  obstacle,  and  when 
traffic  has  again  begun  to  circulate,  we  see  a  laden  donkey 
lying  on  the  ground  at  another  corner;  it  has  been  the 
same  with  him  as  with  the  camel,  but  the  collision  with 
the  corner  has  disturbed  the  equilibrium  of  the  excessive 
load  upon  his  back,  and  his  burden  being  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  his  strength  he  has  not  been  able  to  keep  his  feet. 

Annoyed  at  the  continual  stoppages  we  dismount,  and 
prefer  to  rely  upon  our  own  personal  agility.  We  thrust 
a  few  copper  coins  into  the  hand  of  the  donkey-boy,  who 
is  always  discontented  when  he  has  to  deal  with  a  Frank, 
and  besides  what  he  ought  to  get  always  insists  upon  Back- 
shish^, that  gratuity  of  so  many  significations,  the  name  of 
which  continues  to  haunt  a  stranger  who  has  been  in 
Egypt.  According  to  humour  and  disposition,  and  in  order 
to  avoid  a  row,  we  satisfy  the  impudent  demand  either  by 
giving  something  more  or  by  making  a  threatening  move- 
ment with  our  uplifted  stick.  A  native  who  knows  the 
charges  gives  him  half  what  we  have  given;  the  youngster 
kisses  the  gift  thankfully,  and,  without  looking  how  much  it 

^  This  word  is  Persian,  and  is  generally  used  in  addressing  Europeans  only;  it 
seems  also  to  have  entered  the  country  with  the  Europeans,  since  at  the  French 
period  the  natives  still  used  the  words  Fdda,  Fdda,  in  begging. 


O  UPPER   EGYPT. 

is,  thrusts  it  into  his  bosom,  into  the  folds  of  his  turban,  or 
into  his  ear.  The  European,  however,  must  at  all  times  and 
in  all  places  pay  too  much ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  lie  is  an 
object  of  the  most  abject  outward  respect  throughout  all 
Egypt,  on  account  of  his  ability  to  pay,  his  power,  his  energy 
and  acknowledged  cleverness,  less  perhaps  in  virtue  of  his 
moral  superiority. 


THE   GREAT  MAN. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  this?  Those  who  were  walking 
rapidly  stop  and  remain  still,  whoever  was  sitting  stands 
up,  pipes  or  cigarettes  are  taken  from  the  mouth,  animated 
conversation  ceases,  scolding  and  quarrelling  are  at  an  end,  the 
parties  bending  their  heads  and  remaining  motionless,  groups 
step  aside,  and  right  and  left  a  wall  of  people  is  formed.  Out 
of  the  multitude  that  parts  on  either  side  springs  a  swift-footed 
light-clad  young  fellow,  with  dress  tucked  high  up,  holding  a 
rod  in  his  hand;  this  is  the  avarit-courier.  After  him,  and 
seated  high  on  horseback,  or  on  a  snow-white  ass  of  noble 
ra:ce,  as  tall  as  a  horse,  trots  a  wide-trousered  Turk^  followed 
by  a  crowd  of  heavily-armed  Turkish  police-soldiers  panting 
after  him,  and  a  number  of  domestics  and  slaves.  The  great 
man,  after  the  manner  of  Islam,  first  graciously  salutes  the 
citizens  standing  rooted  in  reverence  on  either  side  of  him, 
while  they  bending  low  raise  dust  from  the  ground  as  a 
mark  of  their  subjection,  and  carry  it  to  their  mouths  to  kiss, 
testifying  to  the  sincerity  of  their  respect  by  laying  their 
liand  on  their  forehead  and  their  heart.  This  Turk  of  high 
rank  is  the  Mudir,  the  head  man  of  the  province.  The  pomp, 
without  which  he  never  stirs  from  his  house,  is  the  passion 
and  necessity  of  the  race  to  which  he  belongs,  and  clothes 
him  at  the  same  time,  to  the  eyes  of  the  people,  in  the  precious 
nimbus  of  majesty. 


*  In  modern  times,  however,  officials  of  high  rank  must  appear  in  a  suit  of 
]iJuropean  black. 


THE   BAZAR. 


THE   BAZAR. 


We  follow  the  human  current  for  a  few  steps  farther  and 
reach  the  centre  of  traffic,  the  market,  or  as  the  European 
and  Turk,  but  seldom  the  Arab,  are  wont  to  call  it,  the 
bazar.  The  wide  open  spaces  of  the  town  are  only  intended 
for  shady  hours  and  on  certain  days  of  the  week  for  the 
sale  of  provisions,  the  retail  trade  on  the  other  hand  goes  on 
in  the  narrow  streets,  where  the  shops  are  situated.  In  these 
streets  there  is  a  continual  twilight  either  from  the  closeness 
of  the  houses  to  each  other  or  from  an  awning  stretched  above 
from  side  to  side,  so  that  the  hottest  periods  of  the  day  or  year 
can  here  be  passed  in  comfort.  The  shops  consist  of  rows  of  low- 
roofed  cells  formed  in  the  ground  story  of  dwelling-houses,  or 
situated  in  special  long,  low  buildings.  We  have  heard  a  great 
deal  of  the  splendid  bazars  of  the  luxurious  East,  and  there 
was  perhaps  some  excuse  for  our  ancestors  waxing  enthusiastic 
over  them  at  a  time  when  European  industry  and  Europe 
generally  was  far  behind  the  wealthy  East  in  the  production 
of  costly  merchandise;  but  at  the  present  day  a  bazar,  even 
in  Ihe  larger  towns  of  Upper  Egypt,  appears  poor  and  in- 
significant when  compared  with  the  handsome  shops  of  Europe. 
The  Arab  dealer  is  perhaps  not  altogether  in  the  wrong  in 
not  giving  to  his  little  shop  the  splendid  exterior  which 
consumes  a  considerable  part  of  the  capital  required  to  start 
the  business,  and  behind  which  often  enough  hollow-eyed 
bankruptcy  lies  in  wait.  The  finest  and  richest  native  shop  in 
one  of  the  towns  of  Upper  Egypt  is,  as  a  rule,  inferior  in  out- 
ward appearance  to  a  petty  retail-shop  in  the  outskirts  of  a 
European  town,  or  even  to  the  booth  that  a  wandering  trader 
takes  round  with  him  to  country  fairs.  In  the  provinces  it  con- 
sists at  best  of  a  quadrangular  chamber,  raised  some  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  street,  only  high  enough  to  let  a  person 
stand  upright,  so  that  prayers  maj^  be  duly  performed  in  it, 
and  usually  measuring  less  in  the  other  dimensions.  The 
few  goods  that  are  kept  in  stock  are  piled  up  openly  on  some 
rough  shelves  or  benches  in  the  back  part.     Some  pieces  of 


10 


UPPER   EGYPT. 


cloth  and  finery  hang  from  the  upper  half  of  the  door,  which 
half  is  raised  so  as  to  project  in  the  manner  of  a  roof,  while 
the  lower  half  is  let  down,  or  is  extended  outwards  table- 
wise  in  order  to  add  to  the  surface  of  the  shop-floor.  Here 
and  there  also  a  case  with  a  glass  top  displays  a  variety  of 
small  ornamental  wares.     Larore  bills  and  tickets  need  not  be 

o 

looked  for  here;  while  few  can  read  a  written  announcement 


Shop  of  a  Retail  Dealer. 


what  is  in  the  shop  can  be  seen  by  any  one.  The  only  pieces 
of  writing  that  are  stuck  up  are  passages  from  the  Koran. 
An  outspread  carpet  and  a  few  cushions  are  all  that  the 
easy-going  shopkeeper  requires  in  the  way  of  comfort,  and 
there  he  sits  with  his  legs  crossed,  a  long  pipe  or  a  paper 
cigarette  in  his  mouth,  and  waits  for  purchasers  in  silent 
dignity.  Another,  who  cares  still  less  for  show,  drags  his 
wares  day  after  day  out  of  the  dark  store-room  behind  into 
the  doorless  hole  of  a  shop,  fills  his  straw  baskets  with  them, 


INDUSTRIAL   SURVEY.  11 

and  sets  them  out  for  show  upon  old  boxes  or  crates  made 
of  palm  twigs,  while  lighter  goods  flutter  picturesquely  from 
extended  cords  and  poles. 

INDUSTRIAL  SURVEY. 

The  workshops  of  the  artisans  differ  little  from  the  booths 
of  the  shopkeepers,  and  the  occupations  of  these  people  are 
carried  on  in  full  publicity.  By  a  very  ancient  rule  the 
market  people  arrange  themselves  generally  according  to 
trades  and  guilds ;  but  in  the  provinces,  where  the  division 
of  labour  is  not  so  well  marked,  this  system  is  carried  out 
to  a  less  extent  than  in  the  capital.  This  arrangement  does 
not  seem  to  be  prejudicial  to  the  individual  society.  From 
the  quiet  district  of  the  grocery  and  drug  shops  one  can  pass 
to  the  noisy  quarters  occupied  by  the  tinsmiths  and  copper- 
smiths; from  the  savoury  hearths  of  the  cooks  to  the  vile 
holes  of  the  tanners.  Let  us  make  the  round  of  the  indus- 
trial establishments.  At  the  present  day  any  one  who  un- 
dertakes a  journey  of  investigation  with  the  view  of  adopt- 
ing from  the  industries  of  foreign  peoples  anything  that  may 
be  advantageous  for  his  native  land,  will  certainly  turn'  his 
steps  last  to  that  country  from  which,  in  former  times,  the 
first  light  of  civilization  shone  over  the  world.  Still  an  in- 
dustrial inspection  is  here  by  no  means  devoid  of  interest, 
seeing  that  we  find,  beyond  doubt,  a  picture  of  the  handi- 
crafts practised  by  the  venerable  fathers  of  the  human  race, 
and  very  often  living  images  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  fore- 
fathers themselves.  The  principle  that  prevails  throughout 
the  industries  of  the  modern  Egyptians  is  to  produce  from 
chefip  readily  procured  materials  articles  that  "will  do,"  with- 
out regard  to  durability,  accuracy,  and  taste. 

We  halt  in  astonishment  before  the  stall  of  a  workman 
who  is  using  a  strange  kind  of  boring-tool.  Holding  in  one 
hand  a  bow  something  like  a  fiddle  bow,  the  string  of  which 
he  has  twisted  round  an  upright  rod,  he  gives  the  rod  a 
rapid  circular  movement  by  urging  the  bow  backwards  and 
forwards.     In  this  way  a  piece  of  iron  wire  projecting  above 


12 


UPPER   EGYPT. 


the  rod,  and  having  a  lancet-like  point,  cuts  its  way  deeper 
and  deeper  into  the  heart  of  a  reed  which  he  holds  down  on 
the  top  of  it  with  his  other  hand.  With  a  few  strokes,  which 
produce  a  scratching,  rattling  sound,  he  produces  an  excellent 
tube  for  a  tobacco-pipe.  Beside  him  sits  an  assistant  or  bro- 
ther, the  turner.  The  whole  of  his  portable  apparatus  consists 
in  afoot-board,  with  two  small  boards  rising  perpendicularly 
from  it,  between  which  the  object  to  be  turned,  be  it  wood, 
bone,  or  amber,  is  firmly  fixed  by  means  of  projecting  pins. 
By  the  bow  in  his  right  hand  this  object  is  made  to  revolve 
on  its  axis,  while  his  left  hand  applies  the  sharp  steel  chisel 


A  Borer  of  Pipe  Stems. 


that  cuts  the  object  smooth.  The  apparatus  is  steadied  by 
planting  the  naked  right  foot  upon  two  cross-bars,  the  left 
upon  the  foot-board. 

The  cabinet-maker  or  carpenter — in  Arabic  there  is  but 
one  name  for  both,  neggdr — has  neither  a  bench,  nor  in 
general  a  vice.  What  would  be  the  use  of  such  an  expensive 
appliance?  He  squats  upon  the  board  that  he  is  to  plane 
and  hew,  supports  his  log  with  his  foot,  or  in  the  case  of  finer 
work  takes  the  object  between  the  second  and  the  great  toe 
of  his  prehensile  foot,  as  the  ancient  Egyptians  did;  his  teeth 
even  serve  instead  of  a  tool.  Instead  of  a  rule  he  is  gene- 
rally satisfied  with  a  cord  or  a  palm  twig,  on  which   he 


INDUSTRIAL   SURVEY.  13 

marks  his  measurements,  and  for  a  pair  of  compasses  he  uses 
a  cord  with  a  piece  of  wire  stuck  through  it  as  a  centre. 
His  boring  tool  resembles  the  instrument  of  the  pipemaker, 
and  like  it  dates  from  ancient  Egyptian  times.  It  is  a  piece 
of  iron  wire  with  one  of  its  ends  flattened  to  a  lancet  shape, 
inserted  in  a  wooden  cylinder.  The  upper  end  of  the  wire 
enters  into  a  hollow  knob,  which  in  most  cases  consists  of 
a  doom-nut  (the  fruit  of  the  doom-palm).  The  cylinder  is 
made  to  revolve  by  the  bow  already  mentioned.  The  mani- 
pulation of  this  boring-brace  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabic 
artisan  seems  easy  and  playful;  the  unaccustomed  Frank 
prefers  a  gimlet.  The  chief  tool  of  the  carpenter  is  the  small 
axe,  in  the  use  of  which  he  displays  great  dexterity. 

The  tinsmith,  tlie  locksmith,  and  the  silversmith  use  a 
remarkable  kind  of  bellows.  A  little  heap  of  earth  is  pierced 
by  a  piece  of  an  old  gun  barrel,  one  end  of  which  is  directed 
towards  the  fire,  this  consisting  of  a  little  heap  of  coals  kept 
together  by  a  few  loose  stones.  The  bellows  part  consists  of 
a  goatskin,  probably  an  old  water  skin,  of  a  conical  form, 
ending  in  a  point,  which  is  attached  to  the  other  extremity 
of  the  tube.  In  the  posterior  part  of  the  skin  is  cut  a  trans- 
verse slit,  the  edges  of  which  are  strengthened  by  slips  of 
wood.  In  the  back  of  the  stall  squats  the  plump-cheeked 
apprentice  boy,  who  with  the  fingers  of  one  hand  works  the 
valve  of  the  bellows,  raising  it  so  as  to  open  the  slit,  and  then 
depressing  it  so  as  to  close  it,  when  the  air,  being  expelled, 
passes  under  the  heap  of  earth  through  the  tube  and  acts 
upon  the  fire. 

The  bellows  of  the  blacksmith  is  somewhat  more  com- 
plicated. Behind  a  sloping  wall  of  boards  are  two  large 
cylindrical  leather  bags,  strengthened  by  a  number  of  wooden 
hoops,  and  both  closed  posteriorly  by  a  wooden  bottom,  with 
an  air-hole  and  with  a  valve.  By  a  very  simple  arrangement 
— namely,  several  wooden  bars  fastened  perpendicularly  to 
the  wooden  bottom  of  the  bellows,  and  having  a  kind  of  hinge 
movement  on  a  foot-board  below  by  means  of  an  iron  ring 
— the  two  air-holders  are  alternately  made  to  take  in  and  give 
out  air  through  the  backward  and  forward  motion  given  to 


14  UPPER   EGYPT. 

them  by  a  young  fellow  standing  upon  tlie  foot-board.  The 
air-bags  converge,  and  terminate  first  in  two  separate  tubes, 
then  in  one  common  one,  and  the  air-current  is  directed  upon 
the  front  part  of  the  hearth,  which  consists  of  an  earthen  mound 
surrounded  with  rough  stones.  The  Arabic  Vulcan  has  on 
his  raggedest  clothes,  or  it  may  be  is  bare  to  the  thighs  on 
account  of  the  heat.  The  ceiling  of  the  roomy  smithy  is 
festooned  with  hanging  rags  or  fragments  of  straw  matting, 
for  it  is  his  belief  that  elegance  of  appointments  does  not 
help  work  forward.  A  knotty  undressed  piece  of  wood,  as  it 
grew  from  the  soil,  contents  him  for  a  handle  to  his  hammer 
as  well  as  if  it  were  of  the  most  finished  kind. 

We  cast  a  glance  into  the  open  booths  of  the  tailors,  shoe- 
makers, saddlers,  lacemakers,  tinsmiths,  coppersmiths  or 
braziers,  the  mat  and  basket  weavers,  and  enter  the  more 
retired  and  half-open  premises  of  the  tanners,  indigo-dyers, 
weavers,  bakers,  and  potters.  A  bed-cover  maker  is  loosen- 
ing into  a  fleecy  mass,  with  the  tightened  string  of  a  bow- 
shaped  instrument,  a  quantity  of  old  cotton  which  has  become 
lumpy.  The  silver  and  gold  smith  melts  down  the  fine  gold 
of  old  zechins  and  Austrian  ducats  as  well  as  the  silver 
mixed  with  tin  of  the  Maria  Theresa  dollars,  and  manufac- 
tures from  them  very  handsome  and  highly  prized  trinkets 
Vjy  the  help  of  some  matrices,  a  si  mple  conical  bio  w- pipe,  pincers, 
and  hammer.  The  fondness  of  the  Egyptian  women  for  gold 
and  silver  ornaments  enables  such  a  goldsmith  to  do  a  thriving 
trade  in  every  small  town.  The  manufacture  of  glass,  which 
had  its  native  country  in  ancient  Egypt  and  not  in  Phoenicia, 
and  here  was  once  so  famous,  has  greatly  declined,  and  now 
only  a  few  wretched  productions  are  turned  out  Almost  all 
goods  made  of  glass,  as  well  as  of  porcelain,  even  the  coffee- 
cups  in  such  general  use,  and  which  are  scarcely  to  be  had  in 
Europe,  are  now  brought  from  the  land  of  the  Franks.  The 
manufacture  of  pottery,  on  the  other  hand,  in  some  places  of 
Upper  Egypt,  as  Keneh,  Balas,  Siout,  is  in  a  very  flourishing 
state,  the  processes  scarcely  differing  from  those  employed  in 
Europe.  The  products  are  a  porous,  unglazed  ware,  and  the 
vessels  still  have  the  same  shapes  as  those  depicted  in  the 


INDUSTRIAL   SURVEY.  15 

ancient  Egyptian  tombs.  The  large  handled  jars  of  Balas, 
named  after  that  villao-e,  are  fastened  toojether  into  rafts  and 
by  this  means  are  transported  by  water. 

We  observe  also  the  dexterity  of  the  barber,  here  as  else- 
where always  loquacious.  He  scrapes  bare  all  craniums  that 
come  under  his  hands,  and  has,  therefore,  acquired  a  quite 
astounding  facility  in  shaving;  his  customer  complacently 
views  his  maornified  features  in  the  concave  mirror  which  is 

o 

held  before  him  by  its  handle.  A  patient  may  here  get 
himself  cupped,  the  barber  making  cruciform  incisions  with 
his  razor  on  any  affected  part,  and  the  cup  being  formed  of  a 
conical-shaped  horn  with  a  leather  valve  at  top,  from  which 
the  air  is  sucked  by  the  mouth  so  as  to  make  the  blood 
flow  freely. 

In  the  mill,  located  in  the  lower  part  of  a  house,  we  see  a 
horse  walking  round  in  a  circle ;  he  carries  a  rough  trunk  of  a 
tree  on  his  neck,  and  with  it  sets  in  motion  a  cylinder,'a  toothed 
wheel,  and  a  millstone.  The  latter  receives  the  grain  from  a 
hopper,  and  lower  down  the  flour  and  bran,  ground  and  mixed 
together,  stream  out.  We  learn  that  the  wind-mills  formerl}^ 
introduced  by  the  French,  and  still  visible  at  a  distance  on 
many  an  elevation,  do  not  generally  succeed,  and  that  the 
"steam  flour,"  that  is,  the  fine  flour  of  the  steam-mills,  already 
enjoys  a  continually  increasing  sale.  Much  flour  is  also 
made  in  the  houses  by  means  of  a  hand-ndll,  the  basis  of 
which  is  also  the  millstone.  It  always  demands  great 
strength,  and  the  grinding  is  done  by  strong  female  slaves, 
or  by  women  of  the  lowest  ranks.  The  work  begins  at  the  first 
dawn  of  day;  and  the  women  are  fond  of  joining  in  grinding 
parties,  at  which  they  sing  peculiar  monotonous  grinding- 
songs,  and  keep  hands  and  tongues  both  going. 

A  kafaz-maker  manufactures  from  the  fresh  twigs  of  the 
date-palm  a  multitude  of  cheap  articles  in  basket-work,  such 
as  bedsteads,  chairs,  benches,  cages,  and  crates  for  all  kinds 
of  brittle  wares,  as  glass,  clay  pitchers,  &c.  From  the  pre- 
vailing scarcit}^  of  wood,  palm  twigs  are  very  serviceable  for 
this  purpose.  These  articles,  however,  have  the  unfortunate 
peculiarity  of  furnishing  excellent  lurking-places  for  bugs. 


16  UPPER   EGYPT. 

The  Egyptian  artisan  is  dexterous  and  quick  at  learning. 
He  excites  astonishment  indeed  when  we  consider  the  rude- 
ness of  his  implements.  It  can  at  once  be  told,  however, 
whether  an  article  has  been  made  by  an  Arab  or  a  European. 
The  natives  know  this  very  well  themselves,  and  have  a  keen 
sense  of  their  own  inferiority  in  such  matters.  An  Arab 
chair  never  stands  quite  firm  on  its  feet,  a  table  or  a  door 
is  always  a  little  off  the  truth,  a  trunk  or  box  always 
gapes  about  the  lid,  a  tin-case  has  always  the  joints  smeared 
with  solder,  the  corners  too  sharp,  or  has  a  small  hole  some- 
whei'e. 

The  native  artisan  learns  from  his  childhood  onwards;  so 
soon  as  he  can  walk  and  speak  he  passes  the  greater  part  of 
the  day  in  his  father's  workshop,  and  helps  or  hinders  as 
much  as  he  can.  The  son  becomes  apprentice  as  a  matter  of 
course,  then  journeyman,  and  lastly  his  father's  successor  in 
business.  When  a  man  has  no  son  he  buys  himself  a  slave 
and  teaches  him  his  trade.  As  soon  as  the  young  fellow  is 
as  far  advanced  as  his  father  he  is  master  of  his  trade;  to 
wish  to  know  more  would  be  presumption.  If  the  master 
becomes  old  and  feeble  he  is  supported  by  the  gratitude  of 
his  apprentices  and  sons. 

We  may  add  that  every  one  can  drive  what  trade  he 
pleases,  since  industrial  freedom  has  always  prevailed  in  the 
Mohammedan  East.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  on  the 
other  hand,  trades  were  rigidly  exclusive ;  no  artisan  could, 
on  peril,  of  punishment,  encroach  upon  the  trade  of  another, 
and  the  son  always  followed  the  calling  of  the  ftxther. 

SURVEY   OF   THE   PEOPLE. 

Having  become  acquainted  with  the  general  features  of 
bazar  life,  let  us  step  aside  and  enter  some  shop  or  other  in 
order  that  we  may  quietl}^,  and  at  leisure,  observe  how  the 
current  of  street  life  flows  on.  The  owner  gives  us  a  friendly 
invitation  to  seat  ourselves  beside  him  on  the  shop-bench, 
quickly  orders  refreshments  from  the  neighbouring  coffee- 
house, and  offers  us  a  chibouk.    Man  after  man  crosses  the  open 


DRESS.  17 

doorway  as  we  gaze ;  our  thoughts  begin  to  become  dreamy, 
we  see  passing  bodily  before  us  all  the  figures  that  stirred  our 
enthusiasm  in  our  youthful  days  when  we  read  the  Arabic 
stories  of  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights.  There  is  Ali  Baba, 
who  discovered  the  cave  of  the  Forty  Thieves ;  there  the  old 
cobbler  Baba  Mustafa ;  there  the  merchant  Ali  Chuge,  who 
concealed  his  money  in  olives ;  there  the  fortunate  Aladdin,  who 
found  the  wonderful  lamp;  there  are  they  all,  the  Hassans, 
the  Hossens,  the  Ibrahims,  the  Ahmeds.  It  is  more  than 
ten  hundred  years  since  Harun  er  Rashid  rustled  past ;  many 
a  thing  is  changed  in  the  great  world  since ;  no  mighty  Khalif 
rules  any  longer  over  the  faithful;  but  the  people,  at  least 
those  who  speak  the  Arabic  language  and  profess  the  religion 
of  Islam,  do  not  differ  notably  in  speech,  dress,  and  habits 
from  the  type  of  their  ancestors.  We  shall  even  go  farther. 
Let  us  pick  out  at  random  a  man  belonging  to  the  common 
])eople  of  Upper  Egypt  and  divest  him  of  his  modern  outer 
dress  (loose  shirt  and  turban),  let  us  strip  him  of  his  un- 
doubtedly thick  varnish  of  Mohammedanism,  or  it  may  be 
of  Christianity,  take  from  him  his  pipe,  his  coffee,  and  his 
beard,  and  there  stands  before  us  a  genuine  native  of  Kemi. 
He  will  be  sure  to  exhibit  the  same  slim  yet  strong  limbs, 
the  broad  chest,  the  same  type  of  face  with  its  broad  cheeks, 
projecting  lips,  wide  nostrils,  and  almond  eyes;  also  the  same 
solid  shaven  head,  and  in  spite  of  all  the  buffets  of  Fate,  at 
bottom  the  same  inherited  nature.  In  Upper  Egypt,  too,  we 
find,  lastly,  a  multitude  of  individual  customs  and  usages 
dating  from  the  great  Pharaonic  period^  which  have  partly 
been  transmitted  directly  by  tradition,  and  partly  have  become 
naturalized  in  Islam  indirectly  through  Judaism. 

DRESS. 

In  his  dress  the  oriental  does  not  allow  himself  to  be 
tyra,nnized  over  by  the  despotism  of  fashion;  taste  has  the 
fullest  play  subject  to  certain  unchangeable  rules.  It  is  only 
the  higher  officials,  from  the  head  clerk  and  the  doctor 
upwards,  who  require  in  modern  times,  even  in  the  provinces, 


18  UPPER   EGYPT. 

to  follow  the  dictates  of  a  higher  will,  and  provide  them- 
selves with  a  black  Europseo-Turkish  suit  (with  a  standing 
collar  on  the  coat),  this  being  regarded  as  the  basis  of  all 
civilization.  The  man  of  the  lower  ranks  in  the  towns  wears 
a  kind  of  loose  shirt  or  blouse  of  cotton  reaching  to  the  feet,  or 
somewhat  shorter,  with  or  oftener  without  a  girdle.  Under- 
neath this  he  has  a  kind  of  short,  light  drawers,  or  only  a 
thigh-cloth  round  his  middle.  The  shirt  is  only  laid  aside 
when  the  wearer  is  engaged  in  hard,  wet,  or  dirty  work. 
The  ancients  were  still  less  particular  about  this  matter ;  the 
workman,  the  warrior,  even  the  king  in  the  heat  of  battle 
exposed  himself  with  nothing  on  but  a  short  loin-cloth  or 
apron.  The  well-formed  hairy  breast  is  seen  through  the 
broad  triangular  opening  in  the  front  of  the  shirt,  or  is 
concealed  by  a  bright-coloured,  striped  waistcoat,  which  is 
put  on  under,  or  even  over  it.  The  colour  of  the  shirt 
that  is  worn  by  the  black  natives  of  Soudan  and  the  light- 
tinted  Bedouins  is  white;  but  the  thrifty  Egyptian  of  the 
towns,  who  is  never  in  a  hurry  to  change  his  linen,  more 
prudently  wears  generally  a  blue  one.  The  peasant  of 
Upper  Egypt,  on  the  other  hand,  wears  even  in  summer  a 
wide,  coarse  woollen  shirt  of  a  brown  colour — a  mark  by 
which  he  may  be  at  once  recognized — and  his  sleeves,  which 
are  wide  enough  to  admit  the  body  of  a  man,  hang  down 
almost  to  his  ankles.  Countryman  as  well  as  townsman,  when 
he  goes  afield,  always  carries  with  him  his  niilayeh,  a  kind  of 
plaid  or  shawl  of  a  striped  pattern,  fringed  at  both  ends,  and 
worn  round  the  shoulders.  This  article  of  dress  serves  for 
many  different  purposes,  being  used  to  keep  its  owner  warm 
in  winter,  as  a  cushion  for  his  head  when  lying  down,  as  a 
carpet,  as  a  screen  from  the  sun,  as  a  wrapper  to  put  pur- 
chases into,  as  receptacle  for  provender,  and  as  a  table-cloth. 
The  feet,  hardened  by  early  practice,  are  bare,  or  are 
covered  with  bright-red  leather  slippers,  generally  somewhat 
peaked  in  front,  or  sometimes  sandals  are  used.  Stockings 
or  boots,  as  being  obstructive  to  the  practice  of  religion,  are 
little  worn;  the  head  is  all  the  more  carefully  attended  too. 
Youths  and  many  of  the  labouring  class  must  be  contented 


DRESS.  19 

witli  a  white  cap  of  cotton  stuff  fitting  closely  to  the  head, 
and  leaving  the  ears  free.  Youths  of  a  more  advanced  age 
or  higher  standing  wear  above  this  a  red  cap  of  fine  cloth, 
called  tarhush,  in  Turkish  fez  (those  of  European  cloth 
are  not  liked  by  the  natives),  from  which  hangs  down 
a  bold  tassel  of  blue  silk.  The  tarbush  or  fez  is  usually 
bought  only  once  in  a  lifetime,  or  descends  by  inheritance 
from  generation  to  generation,  till  no  trace  of  its  original 
colour  remains.  Grown  up  men  wear  besides  the  fez  the 
turban,  which  is  usually  white  or  red;  among  the  descen- 
dants of  the  Prophet  green,  among  the  Kopts  black  or 
blue.  The  turban,  which  ma}^  be  regarded  as  the  symbol  of 
Islam,  consists  of  a  piece  of  gauzy  material  of  immense 
length  wound  round  and  round  the  fez  a  great  many  times. 
It  forms  a  picturesque  and  imposing  but  somewhat  heavy 
head-dress.  Some  Fellahs,  as  well  as  the  dervishes,  wear 
a  thick  felt  cap  of  the  form  of  an  inverted  flower-pot  or 
of  a  sugar  loaf.  The  Bedouin  of  the  East,  and  many  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  have  bright-coloured  cloths, 
often  of  silk,  fluttering  about  their  head  and  shoulders  as 
a  protection  against  the  sun  and  weather.  In  the  stormy 
days  of  winter  the  native  is  concerned  before  everything 
about  the  protection  of  his  bare  shaved  head,  since,  in  spite 
of  the  turban,  it  is  only  about  his  head  and  neck  that  he  seems 
to  feel  the  cold,  his  lower  extremities  being  left  naked  as 
usual.  The  winter  mantle  of  black,  or  white,  or  striped 
woollen  cloth  is  then  drawn  over  the  head,  or  only  the  hood, 
which  is  attached  to  the  mantle  above.  The  long  striped 
kaftan,  which  hangs  loosely  from  the  neck  down  to  the 
heels,  and  is  confined  by  a  Tripoli  silk  or  cashmere  girdle, 
belongs  to  the  better  classes.  Above  it  is  worn  a  wide- 
armed  blue-black  garment  like  a  toga.  The  elegant  Arab 
gentleman  puts  on  above  the  costly  and  brightly-striped 
silken  kaftan,  a  coat  of  fine  cloth,  simpl}'-  but  generally 
brightly  coloured,  open  in  front,  as  long  as  the  body,  and 
mostly  of  a  very  simple  cut.  The  Turk,  with  all  who  aflect 
the  title  of  Eflendi,  flings  himself  into  a  jacket,  and  those 
wide  many-folded  trousers,  the  superfluous  cloth  of  which 


20  UPPER   EGYPT. 

dangles  coquettishly  like  a  sack  behind.  In  his  girdle  the 
warlike  Turk  sticks  daggers  and  pistols,  the  peaceful  "son 
of  an  Arab"  (so  the  Egyptian  calls  himself,  Arab  meaning 
Bedouin)  an  ink-bottle.  There  is  a  comfortable  dress  worn, 
especially  by  semi-orientals,  such  as  Levantines,  Jews,  or 
Syrians,  and  even  regarded  as  fashionable  on  the  street  and 
in  the  reception-room,  consisting  in  a  combination  of  the 
kaftan  (usually  a  simple  white  one)  with  the  Turkish  jacket 
or  the  European  coat,  and  when  this  is  worn  the  turban 
must  give  way  to  the  tarbush.  The  official  also,  so  soon 
as  his  position  allows,  and  especially  in  summer,  exchanges 
his  uncomfortable  uniform  for  this  easy  suit,  under  which 
drawers  alone  are  worn.  Arabs  even  of  good  position  do 
not  recognize  the  value  of  proper  underclothing ;  they  wash 
and  bathe  much,  and  carefully ;  but  their  shirt  consists  of  a 
flimsy,  semi-transparent,  gauzy  material,  which  is  ill- adapted 
for  absorbing  the  perspiration.  The  costume  worn  by  the 
ancient  Egj^ptians,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  figures  in 
outline  shown  in  their  paintings,  was  considerably  different 
from  that  of  the  present  day.  The  common  people  wore, 
as  already  mentioned,  only  a  cloth  round  the  loins,  or  a 
short  coat  reaching  to  the  knees,  and  on  their  heads  (bare- 
shaven  like  their  cheeks)  a  close-fitting  cap  like  that  still  in 
use ;  those  of  higher  rank  had  a  longer  coat,  with  a  fringed 
skirt  hanging  in  many  folds,  and  confined  round  the  thighs 
by  a  girdle,  and  above  this  again  a  wide  woollen  mantle, 
similar  to  that  now  worn  by  the  people  of  Marocco.  They 
wore  a  wig  on  their  heads,  and  a  carefully  trimmed  beard 
on  their  chin,  while  they  had  no  shoes,  but  only  sandals. 

TYPES  OF  THE  MAKKET. 

The  loudest  voice  to  be  heard  in  the  chorus  of  market 
people  is  that  of  the  broker  or  auctioneer.  Unweariedly  he 
runs  up  and  down,  right  and  left,  through  the  market,  lifting 
up  his  arm  to  show  off  his  wares,  consisting,  for  example,  of  a 
carpet,  a  pistol,  or  an  amber  mouth-piece  for  a  pipe,  which 
he  is  commissioned  to  sell  for  some  invisible  owner.    Formerly 


TYPES   OF   THE   MARKET.  21 

one  might  see  a  slave  disposed  of  in  this  manner.  A  would-be 
purchaser  at  one  end  of  the  market  calls  out,  "A  hundred 
piasters."  "A  hundred  piasters,"  he  shouts,  and  runs  down 
to  the  lower  end  of  the  market-place,  where  another  buyer 
has  offered  99f  piasters,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  know 
the  advance.  Some  one  in  the  middle  now  offers  lOOj,  and 
again  he  runs  up  and  down  proclaiming  the  new  price.  For 
his  trouble  he  receives  1  nieyti  or  1  para  per  piaster,  that  is, 
one-fortieth  of  the  selling  price.  He  is  the  lion  of  the  market, 
all  listen  to  him,  he  knows  everything  and  everybody,  and 
no  small  part  of  the  traffic  passes  through  his  hands.  The 
merchant  himself  makes  use  of  the  brokers  when  he  wishes 
to  dispose  of  his  goods  quickly ;  or  the  latter  may  buy  at  a 
low  price  the  goods  of  a  person  who  is  pressed  for  money,  in 
order  to  sell  them  at  a  profit  when  an  opportunity  offers. 
When  he  has  important  sales  on  hand  the  broker  goes  through 
all  the  town,  visiting  the  coffee-houses,  warehouses,  inns,  and 
other  places  of  public  resort,  knocks  at  the  doors  of  private 
houses,  and  even  penetrates  within  the  sacred  precincts  of  the 
harem.  His  rivals  in  trade  work  hard  against  him,  but  the 
strongest  voice  and  the  greatest  cunning  gain  the  day. 

In  the  second  rank  comes  the  cry  of  the  pedlars,  who  sell 
nick-nacks  on  their  own  account.  The  pedlars  consist  mostly 
of  children  with  lucifer-matches,  cigarette  papers,  fruits,  and 
sweets.  The  stationary  dealers,  and  even  the  substantial 
merchants,  also  find  it  necessary  from  time  to  time,  publicly 
and  by  word  of  mouth,  to  make  known  to  the  crowd  passing 
the  existence  and  excellence  of  their  wares.  This  they  do  in 
stereotyped,  laconic  phrases,  which  are  often  in  rhyme,  and 
frequently  quite  poetical,  and  are  chanted  to  a  melody  set 
apart  for  each  class  of  goods.  These  cries  lose  their  charm  when 
translated,  for  example:  Ya  tin  ya  aid  es  salatin — "Figs,  the 
food  of  sultans;"  or  as  the  seller  of  liquorice  juice  cries,  ''Oh, 
refresher  of  the  body;"  and  so  on.  In  a  corner  sit  some 
money-changers  beside  a  mone}^  box  jingling  their  dollars. 
Scribes  are  to  be  seen  everywhere,  mostly  Christian  Kopts, 
who  try  to  derive  a  livelihood  from  the  ignorance  of  the 
people;  even  the  higher  class  merchants  make  use  of  their 


22  UPPER   EGYPT. 

services  for  their  calculations,  partly  because  they  feel  they 
are  not  equal  to  the  task  themselves,  partly  because  it  is 
considered  the  correct  thing  to  keep  a  clerk. 

Water-carriers,  with  earthen  water-jar  on  their  backs,  are 
always  ready  to  present  the  refreshing  fluid  in  a  brazen  cup 
such  as  the  ancient  Egyptians  used,  and  very  often  gratis, 
being  engaged  by  some  pious  institution.  The  clinking 
together  of  two  of  these  cups  is  a  regular  element  in  the  hub- 
bub of  the  market.  Another  kind  of  water-carrier  bears  on 
his  back  a  large  leathern  bag  with  stumps  projecting  from 
it  which  vividly  recall  the  form  of  the  goat,  its  former  owner. 
From  the  opening  of  the  neck  he  squirts  the  water  over  the 
dusty  street.  To  sprinkle  smaller  areas,  such  as  the  floor  of 
a  room,  water  is  taken  into  the  mouth  and  spirted  out  again, 
so  that  the  sprinkler  resembles  the  figure  of  a  triton  on  a 
fountain. 

A  porter  skips  groaning  along  the  market  with  a  huge  chest 
weighing  more  than  a  hundredweight  on  his  back;  he  believes 
he  makes  the  work  easier  by  skipping.  Heavier  burdens 
are  sometimes  carried  upon  two  wooden  staves  connected  by 
cords  crossing  between  them ;  this  mode  requires  four  men, 
who  sing  to  keep  time  as  they  bound  along.  Everything  is 
carried,  and  that  mostly  on  the  back,  partly  by  men,  partly 
by  beasts  of  bui'den ;  wheeled  carriages  are  not  met  with  in 
any  country  town.  The  ancients  made  much  use  of  car- 
riages, but,  as  appeal's,  only  for  war  and  the  chase.  Lighter 
burdens,  such  as  w^ater-jars,  were  carried  by  them  attached 
to  bars  of  wood  laid  across  the  neck  and  shoulders,  an  equal 
weight  being  hung  at  either  end,  whereas  now  they  are 
carried  on  the  head  or  shoulders. 

Numerous  beggars,  mostly  blind,  steer  boldly  and  safely 
through  the  stormy  billows  of  street  and  market,  feeling  their 
way  with  their  stick,  and  asking  the  reward  of  their  poverty 
in  words  almost  of  command,  though  only  indirectly  addressed 
to  the  people,  such  as — "I  ask  of  God  the  price  of  a  loaf  of 
bread;"  or,  "I  am  the  guest  of  God  and  of  the  Prophet, 
oh  God  that  givest  abundantly ! "  Others  stand  in  one  spot 
and  chant  melodiously  from  morning  to   night  a  passage 


A   STREET- QUARREL.  23 

which  they  have  learned  by  heart  from  the  Koran  in  the 
expressive  old  Arabic  tongue.  A  few  lunatics  or  imbeciles, 
filthy  and  with  only  a  few  rags  to  cover  their  nakedness, 
wander  restlessly  np  and  down.  Kobody  disturbs  them  in 
their  aimless  occupation;  and  whoever  attracts  a  friendly 
glance  from  them  thinks  himself  lucky.  For  they  are  con- 
sidered saints,  favourites  of  God,  and  their  blessing  works 
wonders. 

A  STREET  QUARREL. 

A  crowd  suddenly  collects.  Some  persons  have  come  to 
words  about  an  insignificant  matter  of  business,  and  the 
afiair  soon  degenerates  into  an  open  quarrel.  Offensive 
words  are  used,  gradually  rising  to  the  highest  pitch  of 
opprobrium,  such  spicy  expressions  as,  ''son  of  a  dog,"  ''brood 
of  the  Pharaohs,"  "infidel,"  "son  of  a  monk,"  "pimp,"  "mon- 
grel," "accurst  be  your  father,  your  beard,  your  mother's 
womb,"  "may  the  grave  seize  you,"  "mischief  upon  you," 
follow  one  after  another.  A  bloody  issue  seems  unavoid- 
able, and  no  police  are  to  be  seen,  when  an  old  man  passing 
by,  a  sheikh,  steps  solemnly  within  the  circle,  and  the  parties 
separate  respectfully.  He  makes  them  tell  him  the  cause 
and  history  of  the  quarrel,  and  passes  sentence  or  calms 
the  contesting  parties  with  the  words  ma  *alesh  (never 
mind),  and  in  a  few  moments  the  deadly  enemies  embrace 
each  other,  and  after  kissing  the  old  man's  forehead,  or  his 
hand,  or  the  hem  of  his  garment,  march  away  hand  in  hand. 
Such  a  result,  of  course,  does  not  always  happen,  but  happens 
often  enough. 

THE  MARKET  AND  THE  WOMEN. 

But  what  has  become  of  the  other  sex  all  this  time?  Woe 
to  her  who  should  dare,  however  closely  muffled  up,  to  set 
foot  in  any  part  of  the  public  market ;  she  would  lose  her 
good  name  for  ever.  Even  the  charmers  that  flutter  past 
from  time  to  time,  and  belong  to  a  class  who  set  but  little 


24  UPPER  EGYPT. 

store  by  a  good  name,  here  find  it  necessary  for  decency's  sake 
to  veil  themselves  partially.  Only  here  and  there  a  solitary 
old  peasant  woman,  who  has  lost  all  her  charms,  wanders 
unveiled.  The  strictness  with  which  the  fair  sex  are  treated 
in  public  increases  in  direct  proportion  as  we  approach  the 
sacred  land  of  the  Prophet,  in  saying  so,  however,  we  do  not 
mean  to  say  anything  as  to  the  strictness  of  the  people's  morals. 
The  farther  north  we  go  the  more  these  phantoms  swarm, 
especially  in  the  chief  towns;  indeed  they  sit  there  (veiled  of 
course)  like  ordinary  merchants  in  their  shops. 

A   COFFEE-HOUSE. 

The  tumult  allayed  we  proceed  on  our  wanderings  again, 
and  find  ourselves  before  a  caf^.  The  places  so  called,  which 
correspond  still  less  than  the  shops  to  Frankish  ideas  of  ele- 
gance and  comfort,  may  be  found  in  abundance  in  every  small 
town  and  village.  In  style  they  range  from  the  simple  straw 
covered  shed  to  the  spacious  pillared  saloon  not  altogether 
devoid  of  architectural  ornamentation,  especially  when  they 
are  owned  by  well-to-do  private  persons,  or  belong  to  a 
mosque.  Elegant  waiters,  showily-dressed  barmaids,  glitter- 
ing wall  mirrors,  are  not  to  be  seen.  Even  the  carpet,  the 
basis  of  all  oriental  comfort,  has  disappeared,  and  in  its 
stead  simple  straw  mats  are  spread  upon  the  earthen  floor, 
or  on  the  seats  of  clay  and  stone.  Or  one  may  seat  himself 
in  front  of  the  shop  and  next  the  street  upon  a  seat  made 
of  palm  twigs,  or  upon  a  clumsy  chair  woven  basket- 
fashion.  It  savours  somewhat  of  mauvais  ton  to  visit 
a  common  cafe,  and  the  guests  belong  chiefly  to  the  lower 
classes;  still  for  our  good  money  we  may  venture  upon  one 
draught.  For  a  few  paras  we  receive  a  tiny  cupful  of  the 
bitter  muddy  beverage.  The  native  almost  always  drinks 
unsweetened  coflfee ;  the  sugar  is  said  to  take  away  or  lessen 
the  exhilarating  eflfect  of  the  beverao^e.  If  we  ask  for  coflee 
"alia  Franka"  we  are  not  likely  to  get  a  cup  of  coflTee  with 
milk,  or  brandy,  such  a  mixture  is  to  a  native  quite  incon- 
ceivable,  but   merely  black   coffee  with   a  small   lump  of 


A   COFFEE-HOUSE.  25 

sugar  in  it.  The  landlord  of  the  coffee-house  is  always  thrown 
into  a  state  of  excitement  by  such  an  order,  and  has  to  send 
some  of  his  satellites  expressly  to  the  market  for  the  lump  of 
sugar.  For  the  future  it  will  be  better  to  follow  the  example 
of  some  of  the  natives  who  have  got  a  sweet  tooth  and  carry 
always  a  bit  of  sugar  in, our  pocket  to  sweeten  the  bitter  cup 
for  ourselves  when  we  pay  a  visit  to  a  cafe.  Since  such  a 
cafe  could  not  afford  a  clerk  or  book-keeper,  and  as  the  pro- 
prietor himself  belongs  to  the  lowest  ranks,  and  cannot  write, 
he  marks  up  each  man's  score  with  strokes  upon  the  wall, 
using  coffee-grounds  instead  of  ink.  The  house  itself  is 
not  exactly  dirty,  but  the  landlord  always  is  so,  since  he 
sits  at  the  fire  in  the  middle  of  tlie  room  like  the  stoker  of 
an  engine.  A  large  pot  with  hot  water  is  always  on  the 
fire;  a  panikin,  either  without  a  cover  or  with  a  fragmentary 
one,  serves  to  make  ready  any  single  order.  The  beverage 
prepared  is  excellent  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  much  of 
the  aroma  has  escaped  through  the  holes  in  the  lid.  Mokha 
is  near,  and  chicory  almost  unknown.  Roasted  chickpeas 
are  the  common  substitute  with  the  thrifty,  and  they  do 
not  taste  badly,  especially  when  a  few  cloves  are  added, 
as  is  often  done,  to  improve  the  flavour.  The  crushing 
of  the  roasted  coffee-beans  with  a  heavy  pestle,  which  reduces 
them  to  a  fine  flour,  such  as  coffee-mills  never  produce,  no 
doubt  contributes  essentially  to  the  satisfactory  extraction 
of  all  the  elements  in  the  cofl'ee.  Coflee-grinding  or  rather 
pounding  forms  a  distinct  trade.  At  every  blow  of  the  long 
and  heavy  pestle,  wielded  in  the  two  hands,  the  workman 
emits  a  loud  groan  from  his  chest. 

The  frequenters  of  the  coffee-house,  as  already  stated,  are 
of  the  poorer  sort,  such  as  artisans,  petty  shop-keepers, 
attendants  on  public  ofiices,  Turkish  soldiers,  seldom  a 
peasant.  The  civilian  prefers  the  floor,  and  despises  the 
chair  standing  beside  him,  leaving  it  to  the  more  honourable 
customers,  the  Turkish  soldiers  to  wit.  One  man  finds  it 
exceedingly  comfortable  to  assume  a  crouching  position 
intermediate  between  sitting  and  standing,  with  his  knees 
much  bent,  so  that  his  hams  come  within  a  few  inches  of  the 


26  UPPER  EGYPT. 

floor,  but  do  not  touch  it;  another  in  a  similar  position  sup- 
ports himself  on  the  floor  with  his  legs  bent  and  his  arms 
clasped  round  them;  a  third  sits  with  his  legs  crossed  in  the 
well-known  position  in  which  tailors  sit.  This,  as  well  as 
the  squatting  position  on  the  floor,  was  common  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  and  is  a  genuine  oriental  custom.  They, 
however,  were  fonder  of  sitting  upon  chairs  and  tasteful 
fauteuils,  and  were  likewise  accustomed  to  sit  resting  upon 
one  knee,  a  practice  which  is  never  observed  now,  possibly 
for  religious  reasons,  since  it  is  held  that  one  ought  to  kneel 
and  prostrate  himself  before  God  alone.  In  the  one  hand 
the  guest  holds  the  small  cup  containing  the  hot  coffee,  tasting 
and  sipping  the  beverage,  in  the  other  the  long  pipe  stem 
with  the  broad  smooth  amber  mouth-piece  to  his  mouth. 
Here  a  customer  has  laid  himself  down  on  his  side,  resting 
his  head  upon  his  elbow,  the  feet  carelessly  stretched  out, 
there  another  has  sunk  into  a  deep  slumber.  Over  there  is 
a  group  of  domino  players  lying  on  their  bellies;  in  the  back- 
ground a  rakish  fellow  may  be  noticed  dallying  with  a 
hetsera. 

From  time  to  time  a  peculiar  gurgling,  bubbling  sound  is 
heard;  it  proceeds  from  the  nargileh  or  hookah,  a  kind  of 
tobacco-pipe  which  has  scarcely  established  itself  anywhere 
but  in  the  East.  A  person  who  gives  himself  up  to  this  enjoy- 
ment smokes  from  the  chest.  The  smoke  from  the  tobacco 
rises  with  a  slight  noise  through  the  water  in  the  hollow  of 
a  cocoa-nut,  and  being  thus  purified  is  sucked  through  the 
tube  or  stem,  which  is  either  flexible  or  made  of  a  reed.  It 
'penetrates  deep  into  the  lungs  of  the  smoker,  and  only  a  small 
portion  issues  from  the  chest  again  in  the  next  expiration.  It 
may  be  suspected  that  many,  indeed  most,  of  those  who  smoke 
'the  hookah  put  into  their  pipes,  in  addition  to  the  innocent 
Persian  tobacco,  a  little  pill  of  hashish,  the  well-known  nar- 
cotic prepared  from  Indian  hemp.  The  peculiar  odour  wafted 
from  the  cafe  betrays  this  unmistakably.  The  keeping  of 
hashish  has,  to  be  sure,  been  again  forbidden  lately;  generally, 
however,  such  ordinances  are  strictly  enforced  only  for  a  short 
time  after  they  are  promulgated.     Already  a  few  may  per- 


GREEK   TAVERN.  27 

haps  have  smoked  themselves  into  a  state  of  the  most  rap- 
turous happiness,  yet  the  intoxication  is  of  a  mild  and  good- 
natured,  often  humorously  loquacious  kind,  and  is  mainly 
characterized  by  mental  delusions.  On  the  whole  there  reigns 
in  these  resorts  of  the  common  people  a  stillness  and  gravity 
peculiar  to  the  oriental.  Here  are  never  heard  the  wild 
shouting  and  noise  which  issue  from  the  beer-shops  and  pot- 
houses of  the  "civilized"  world.  Unintentionally  we  have 
fallen  into  conversation  with  a  neighbour  who  proves  talka- 
tive. We  have  to  smoke  a  pipe  alternately  with  our  friend, 
receiving  it  with  the  mouth-piece  wet  from  his  lips;  but  finally 
break  off  the  conversation,  as  the  good  nature  of  our  comrade 
threatens  to  degenerate  into  unblushing  inquiries  regarding 
our  person  and  concerns. 

GREEK  TAVERN. 

In  most  Eg3^ptian  towns,  large  and  small,  even  in  the 
remotest  provinces,  shopkeepers  are  to  be  found,  almost 
exclusively  of  the  Greek  nation,  who  sell  some  European 
or  Levantine  commodities,  such  as  olives,  olive-oil,  cheese, 
preserved  fruits,  gunpowder,  toys,  and  nick-nacks,  but 
especially  spirituous  liquors.  These  goods  being  much  in 
request  their  shops  become  taverns.  We  enter  one  of  them. 
It  is  a  dark  dirfcy  place,  with  necessarily  more  room  in  it  than 
in  an  Arab  shop,  since  it  has  to  serve  as  store  as  well,  and 
barrels,  boxes,  and  bags  lie  heaped  in  wild  confusion.  Arab 
comfort  is  discarded,  and  European  has  not  yet  taken  its  place; 
we  find  very  few  seats  for  the  guests,  and  still  fewer  tables — 
the  counter  excepted.  The  owner  wears  the  Grseco-Turkish 
costume,  with  long  blue  trousers  of  coarse  linen,  or  he  may 
have  procured  a  European  dress,  in  which,  however,  the 
former  barbarian  still  remains.  An  orthodox  Mohammedan 
will  not  use  a  glass  in  which  there  has  been  a  drop  of  spirits 
until  it  has  been  cleaned  with  the  utmost  care,  and,  though 
lying  on  a  sick-bed,  will  refuse  a  medicine  in  which  he  scents 
a  few  drops  of  an  alcoholic  tincture,  since  indulgence  in  alco- 
holic liquors  is  one  of  the  most  awful  offences  possible;  it  is 


28  UPPER  EGYPT. 

natural,  therefore,  that  he  should  view  with  horror  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  a  tippling-house  in  the  provinces,  as  yet  but 
little  contaminated  by  the  Franks,  and  look  down  with  the 
deepest  contempt  upon  the  person  starting  it,  even  though  little 
else  could  be  brought  against  the  character  of  the  latter.  One 
may  often  hear  abusive  expressions  testifying  to  this  feeling, 
the  epithet  "tavern-keeper"  figuring  along  with  "pimp"  and 
"  hashish-smoker."  Were  a  Mohammedan  to  start  a  spirit- 
shop  he  would  soon  be  compelled  by  his  fellow-believers 
to  give  it  up.  This  "disreputable"  occupation  is  left  to 
Christians,  and  almost  exclusively  to  (> reeks.  But  we  by 
no  means  intend  to  say  that  the  Moslimin  always  abstain 
from  spirituous  liquors.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  extremely 
ready  to  learn  to  drink  them,  and  soon  surpass  their  teachers 
the  Christians.  Where  the  teacher  sips  a  few  glasses  the 
follower  of  the  Prophet  swallows  as  many  bottles  of  strong 
spirit,  and  the  charm  of  forbidden  indulgence  leads  directly 
to  unbridled  and  vicious  excess.  One  after  another  becomes 
a  prey  to  the  habit,  as  the  steady  rise  of  new  drink-shops 
and  the  prosperity  of  their  owners  show:  to  be  sure  the 
taverns  are  never  found  full,  for  people  are  ashamed  to  show 
themselves  there  openly,  so  the  guest  slinks  into  a  corner  and 
sits  down,  or  he  makes  a  number  of  successive  visits,  in 
order  to  refresh  the  thirst  of  the  inner  man.  So  much 
the  more  drink  is  carried  outside,  especially  to  places 
which  will  presently  be  mentioned.  The  liquors  to  be  had 
are  mostly  grain  -  spirit  mixed  with  mastic  and  aniseed, 
and  therefore  becoming  turbid  when  diluted  with  water; 
more  seldom  a  Greek  red  wine,  also  cognac,  burgundy  (at 
least  so  the  labels  on  the  bottles  say),  and  even  champagne. 
The  dear  and  mostly  soured  beer  of  Europe  is  not  much 
thought  of 

NATIVE   BEER-SHOPS. 

The  common  people,  including  the  peasantry,  more  fre- 
quently drink  a  native  beer  (hilza^,  which  is  sold  in  very 
primitive  reed-huts  in  towns  and  villages,  and  in  the  time  of 


NATIVE   BEEK- SHOPS.  29 

harvest  also  in  the  field.  The  beer-seller,  generally  a  Nubian, 
serves  his  guests  by  pouring  it  out  of  a  large  cauldron  into 
a  wooden  dish  which  passes  from  mouth  to  mouth.  This 
beer  is  made  from  malt,  and  is  a  milky,  acidulous,  half  fer- 
mented, and  therefore  non-intoxicating  mash,  resembling  the 
German  "white  beer;"  it  is  one  of  the  luxuries  that  are  not 
forbidden.  Still  these  shops  often  present  a  very  lively  scene; 
playing  and  singing  are  heard  in  them,  and  daughters  of  Eve 
of  doubtful  character  may  be  seen  going  out  and  in.  The 
women  also  drink  this  beer  at  their  peculiar  curative  meet- 
ings, when  they  put  themselves  into  an  ecstasy,  in  the  so- 
called  sar.  (See  Chap.  VII.).  The  beer  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
called  zythus,  was  intoxicating,  like  that  which  is  still  so 
largely  drunk  in  the  Soudan  and  Abyssinia.  On  the  whole, 
however,  the  drinking  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  rare  among  the 
temperate  and  thrifty  people  of  Egypt,  in  so  far  as  the  Moham- 
medans areconcerned,  while  the  native  Christians,  almost  with- 
out exception,  are  greatly  addicted  to  this  indulgence.  The 
peasant  knows  almost  nothing  of  this  luxury,  and  is  therefore 
preserved  from  much  evil.  *'  Wine  has  many  good  qualities," 
says  the  Prophet  in  the  Koran,  "but  also  many  bad;"  indeed, 
as  even  the  faithful  relate,  Mohammed  himself  is  said  at  one 
period  to  have  sometimes  got  tipsy,  and  on  one  such  occa- 
sion to  have  stabbed  his  beloved  teacher.  Hence  the  strict 
prohibition.  The  common  people  of  Islam  indeed  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  same  class  in  western  countries  essen- 
tially by  their  temperance  and  sobriety,  and  through  the 
absence  of  drunkenness,  by  less  rudeness,  and  a  certain  staid 
and  dignified  air.  The  very  considerable  portion  of  their 
income  that  western  people,  even  the  temperate  among  them, 
expend  upon  their  gullets,  keeping  body  and  soul  together 
only  with  the  '"necessaries,"  the  Moslim  expends  on  the 
maintenance  of  a  family,  and  though  drinking  only  water, 
he  finds  himself  as  healthy,  strong,  and  capable  of  the  severest 
labours  as  the  workman  of  the  North  with  his  constant  crav- 
ing for  stimulants.  And  this  craving,  when  it  has  established 
itself,  is  not  less  powerful  in  the  warm  South  than  in  the  cold 
North.      Indulgence  in  opium,  and  still   more  in  hashish, 


30  UPPER   EGYPT. 

however  much  the  custom  is  reprobated,  is  more  widely  spread 
among  the  Moslimin,  and  that  too  in  the  class  that  have  to 
represent  the  religion,  namely,  the  Kadis,  the  Ulemas,  and 
the  Dervishes.  The  ancient  Egyptians,  as  is  well  known, 
were  very  fond  of  wine,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  even 
for  women  to  get  tipsy. 

DANCING   GIRLS. 

From  the  dram-shops  to  the  quarter  where  live  the  frail 
sisters  of  the  dancing  profession  is  but  a  step — both  actually 
and  mentally.  The  occupants  of  both  work  into  each  other's 
hands;  neither  thrives  without -the  other.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  alcoholic  liquors  a  man  forgets  the  considerations 
and  scruples  that  actuate  him  at  other  times,  and  falls  into 
the  arms  of  the  tempting  siren  beside  him ;  once  under  the 
power  of  his  hetsera  he  sends  for  bottle  after  bottle,  and  it 
becomes  an  easy  matter  for  her  to  induce  her  companion, 
intoxicated  by  drink  and  sensual  desires,  to  sacrifice  his  ready 
money.  These  dancing  girls,  an  Egyptian  institution  from 
the  earliest,  even  from  Pharaonic  times,  ply  their  trade  in 
large  numbers  in  all  the  towns  of  Upper  Egypt,  both  great 
and  small,  especiall}^  since  they  were  expelled  the  capital. 
They  boast  to  be  descended  from  Barmek,  the  well-known 
favourite  of  the  Khalif  Harun  er  Rashid;  according  to  some 
they  are  genuine  gipsies;  but  with  such  loose  morals  as  theirs 
purity  of  race  is  out  of  the  question,  and  their  ranks  are 
certainly  recruited  from  the  rest  of  the  population.  They 
are  called  Ghawtizi  (sing.  Ghazie),  a  name  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  fact  that  they  sported  before  (?)  the  Ghus,  as  the 
old  Mamelukes  are  called.  Many  writers  speak  of  them  as 
Almeh,  but  these  are  singing  girls  of  somewhat  better  fame. 
They  are  not  tolerated  near  the  houses  of  respectable  citizens, 
but  certain  streets  or  quarters  are  assigned  to  them,  which, 
it  must  be  stated,  are  often  the  very  ones  most  frequented. 
Their  trade  is  not  wholly  put  a  stop  to,  both  because  they 
are  employed  to  dance  at  feasts,  and  because  the  wise  Arab 
regards  them  as  "a  protection  for  the  women,"  that  is,  they 


DANCING  GlELS.  31 

serve  to  keep  the  rakes  from  running  after  "the  forbidden 
ones/'  the  harim  or  virtuous  women. 

Discarding  scruples  let  us  wander  through  the  head- 
quarters of  this  tolerated  immorality,  and,  selecting  afternoon 
as  the  best  time,  let  us  seize  an  opportunity  seldom  occurring 
of  admiring  the  charms  of  the  Egyptian  female  world  in  all 
its  splendour  and  adornment,  for  otherwise  the  few  muffled 
figures  seen  would  scarcely  lead  us  to  imagine  it  existed. 
Here,  then,  we  are  met  at  once  by  three  ladies,  the  highest 
of  their  class.  Classically  wide  and  pleasingly  coloured 
upper  garments  of  silk  flutter  around  them,  and  a  narrow, 
closely- fitting  gown,  with  narrow  sleeves,  and  made  of 
costly  materials,  falls  perpendicularly  from  the  thigh  to  a 
few  inches  above  the  ankles,  so  as  to  display  the  bright- 
coloured  baggy  trousers,  followed  by  a  shoe  of  glazed  leather, 
or  a  yellow  slipper.  The  whole  person  from  head  to  foot 
is  hung  and  bedizened  with  gold  ornaments,  so  that  such 
a  dancing  girl  is  rendered  thereby  really  a  very  valuable 
object.  Though  poor  little  girls  only  a  few  years  ago  they 
have  made,  in  their  line,  such  a  skilful  use  of  their  charms 
and  advantages  that  they  can  now  show  themselves  off  in 
this  costly  guise,  and  their  money-box  is  perhaps  better  filled 
than  that  of  many  a  merchant,  or  even  a  Turkish  pasha. 
The  first  of  the  three  graces  is  full,  robust,  strong  as  an  oak, 
with  Semitic- Arabic  lengthened  profile;  the  second,  small, 
pale,  and  slender,  is  built  in  the  famous  full-moon  style  of  the 
Arabic  fables;  the  third,  dark  almost  as  a  Moor,  is  modelled 
after  the  broad- cheeked  sphinx  type  (the  Egyptian  sphinxes 
are  said,  however,  to  represent  male  beings)  of  the  Fellah 
women,  the  direct  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptian 
women. 

We  hasten  away,  for  already  we  hear  their  peacock-voices 
and  vulgar  language  which  destroy  the  illusion.  We  work 
our  way  successfully  through  among  the  siren- voices  of  all 
the  fair  ones,  whose  skin  varies  in  colour  from  the  deepest 
black  through  coffee  and  nut  brown  to  clear  lead  colour,  but 
is  never  so  fair  as  that  which  belongs  to  the  blue-eyed,  rosy- 
cheeked  blonde.     We  rather  admire  their  purple  mantles. 


32  UPPER   EGYPT. 

their  yellow  trousers,  and  emerald  jackets,  than  are  attracted 
by  the  fineness  of  their  features.  Convinced  of  the  ugliness 
of  the  greater  number,  we  endeavour  to  escape  from  the 
scene  of  their  activity. 

All  at  once  a  hideous  fury  holds  her  Medusa-head  right 
before  us;  our  footsteps  thus  arrested,  we  stand  staring  at 
her,  hair  on  end.  The  woman,  a  member  of  the  same  trade 
ab-eady  in  the  late  autumn  of  her  ^^ears  but  unable  to  believe 
in  the  loss  of  her  charms,  has  attempted  to  smear  a  second 
youth  upon  her  clieeks  by  reddening  them  with  cinnabar; 
while  on  nose,  brow,  cheeks,  lips,  and  chin,  a  great  number 
of  round  black  spots  of  colour  show  themselves  very  dis- 
tinctly. Her  thin  hair,  which  is  either  her  own  simply 
smoothed  down  or  may  be  false,  shows  here  and  there  a  clot 
of  grease  not  yet  melted  ;  the  rancid  smell  is  smothered  in  the 
strong  odour  of  a  kind  of  musky  perfume  that  exhales  from 
the  surface  of  her  skin.  And  thus  she  cowers  b}'"  her  door- 
step, puffing  thick  clouds  from  a  long  pipe,  in  the  company 
of  her  gray-haired  mother,  who  sucks  away  at  her  hookah. 

With  horror  we  turn  away  from  her  allurements  and  look 
to  the  other  side  of  the  street.  There  our  glances  light  on  a 
pretty  childish  face  that  smiles  towards  us.  Fancying  we 
have  found  innocence  at  last,  we  nod  in  a  friendly  manner. 
The  dark-skinned  maiden  darts  towards  us  and  clings  to  us; 
we  soon  learn  that  she  is  an  Abyssinian  slave,  lately  pur- 
chased by  a  Ghawazi  mother.  But  imagine  our  astonish- 
ment when  we  see  and  hear,  as  we  must,  how  this  lovely 
young  thing  four  feet  in  height,  and  scarcely  nine  years  of 
age,  points  to  her  little  room,  and  with  a  bold  smirk  makes 
known  her  desire  to  receive  us  there.  The  class  of  dancing 
girls,  now  when  the  slave-trade  is  being  abolished,  is  more 
generally  than  ever  recruited  by  purchase  from  among  such 
young  Galla  maidens. 

NIGHT  AND   ITS  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 

Meantime  it  has  become  dark,  and  we  betake  ourselves  to 
our  domicile,  musing  on  the  plasticity  of  the  human  soul. 


WEEKLY  MARKET.  33 

A  nocturnal  walk  offers  us  little.  The  streets  are  deserted 
as  soon  as  the  last  rays  of  daylight  have  disappeared,  except 
at  full  moon  and  during  Ramadan.  Whoever  now  walks 
out  carries  a  glass  or  paper  lantern,  otherwise  he  runs  the 
risk  of  beinof  taken  bv  a  nio^ht  watchman  to  the  nearest 
watch-house.  Here  and  there  perhaps  a  fruit- seller  still 
stands,  endeavouring  by  the  scanty  light  of  an  oil-lamp  to 
dispose  of  his  fast  decaying  wares  at  any  price  they  will 
bring;  or  we  come  upon  some  peaceful  citizens  of  the  poorer 
class  conversing  together  as  they  lie  stretched  out  on  the 
dust  in  some  open  space.  From  a  neighbouring  dram-shop 
some  late  topers  raise  a  sound  of  mirth  or  quarrelling.  The 
last  glimmer  of  human  intercourse  dies  out  round  the  above- 
described  grottoes  of  Aphrodite  and  Terpsichore. 


SECOND    DAY. 

WEEKLY  MARKET. 

The  Moslem  is  a  child  of  the  day.  Unlimited  dominion 
over  the  dismal  night  he  gladly  leaves  to  the  dogs,  the  owls, 
and  the  ghosts.  But  no  sooner  can  a  black  thread  be  distin- 
guished from  a  white  than  activity  reigns  everywhere,  and 
the  rising  sun  already  sees  the  tide  of  public  life  in  full 
sweep. 

We  too  rise  early  and  proceed  to  a  pretty  large  open  space. 
Here  there  is  an  unusual  crowd  of  brown-skinned  country 
people  bustling  about.  It  is  the  weekl}'-  market.  The  sellers, 
many  of  them  having  their  wives  along  wdth  them,  sit  on 
the  ground,  with  the  products  of  the  fertile  soil  before  them — 
a  soil  which  gives  two  or  three  crops  in  the  year,  and  does 
not  cease  to  bear  even  in  winter.  Thus  there  is  no  lack  of 
fresh  vegetables  all  the  year  through,  though  there  is  much 
to  be  desired  on  the  score  of  variety.  Their  wares  are  stowed 
in  baskets,  or  are  heaped  upon  their  shawls,  which  are  spread 
on  the  ground  for  the  purpose.    According  to  the  commodity 


84  UPPER  EGYPT. 

tliey  sell  their  goods  by  the  piece,  or  they  have  them  parcelled 
out  into  little  heaps,  or  weigh  them  on  home-made  scales, 
using  stones  previously  weighed  to  serve  as  weights.  Country 
pedlars  sit  there  too,  who  try  to  attract  the  rustics  by  offering 
trinkets  of  little  value,  pocket-knives,  &c.  There  are  not 
wanting  also  geomantists,  soothsayers,  amulet- writers,  and  so 
forth. 

A  SLAVE  MARKET. — SLAVERY. 

In  a  corner  of  the  square,  beside  the  cattle-market,  we 
observe  a  group  of  raven-black,  scantily-clad  children  of  both 
sexes;  they  are  slaves  exposed  for  sale.  In.  the  capital  and 
its  neighbourhood  the  slave-trade  has  of  course  been  greatly 
curtailed  in  recent  times  through  the  vigilance  of  the  higher 
authorities,  and  the  inhabitants  themselves  are  now  chary  of 
buying  slaves,  as  they  have  no  longer  any  recourse  when  they 
run  away,  since  every  slave  on  reporting  himself  to  the  police 
becomes  at  once  free.  From  time  to  time  whole  caravans  of 
slaves  are  confiscated,  and  the  slaves  escorted  to  the  capital, 
where  the  government  takes  charge  of  them.  The  boys,  as 
soon  as  they  become  strong  enough,  are  generalty  turned  into 
soldiers,  though  some  of  them  are  distributed  as  domestic  ser- 
vants, and  a  few  of  the  cleverer  sent  to  the  government  schools. 
The  girls  are  also  sent  into  service.  But  as  there  is  nothing 
more  certain  to  bring  a  foreign  bird  to  an  unhappy  end  than 
suddenly  giving  it  its  freedom  in  a  foreign  land,  so  too  for 
these  slaves  freedom  is  not  the  best  lot,  as  long  as  they  are 
unaccustomed  to  it.  A  male  or  female  slave  is  to  his  or  her 
master  always  a  valuable  which  he  guards  and  takes  care  of; 
the  free  servant  is  not  to  be  depended  on,  and  stands  in  a 
looser  relationship  towards  his  master.  He  is  no  longer  fed, 
but  must  himself  struggle  for  his  bread  in  a  country  of  whose 
language  he  is  quite  ignorant.  In  the  present  transition 
state  of  matters  mere  anti-slavery  societies,  or  societies 
having  for  their  object  solely  the  rescue  of  men  from  slavery, 
are  not  sufficient;  humane  societies  should  be  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  sending  back  to  their  native  lands  those  who 


A  SLAVE   MARKET.  35 

have  just  been  made  free,  a  task  which  in  those  days,  when  the 
interior  of  Africa  is  becoming  more  and  more  accessible,  can 
at  any  rate  be  partly  accomplished,  although  at  a  great 
expenditure  of  time  and  trouble. 

In  Upper  Egypt  the  slave-trade  on  the  whole  still  remains 
pretty  much  as  of  old.  The  public  sale  of  slaves  in  the 
market-place  has  by  no  means  entirely  ceased,  although 
sales  are  no  longer  so  extensive  as  formerly.  The  govern- 
ment officials  themselves  lend  a  hand  when  an  escaped  slave 
is  to  be  tracked  out,  and  more  than  that,  it  is  an  open  secret 
that  the  native  Christian  or  Mohammedan  consular  agents 
of  European  powers  often  invest  their  money  in  the  slave- 
trade,  though  not  under  their  own  names !  In  the  ordinances 
which  are  issued  for  the  purpose  of  putting  a  stop  to  this 
traffic,  and  which  are  renewed  from  time  to  time,  permission 
is  given  for  people  of  respectability  and  position  to  purchase 
one  or  several  slaves  for  domestic  service.  But  so  long  as 
slaves  can  be  bought  so  long  will  they  also  be  sold. 

The  slave-dealers  have  ordinarily  their  depots  in  the  public 
hostelries.  We  intimate  our  intention  to  make  a  purchase,  and 
are  conducted  into  the  court  of  such  an  establishment.  There 
we  find  some  Sauahli  girls,  with  skins  of  a  deep-brown  colour, 
occupied  in  pounding  in  a  large  wooden  vessel  the  kind  of 
grain  called  ducJin,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  Soudan 
bread,  and  wdiich  has  been  brought  by  their  masters  from 
their  native  lands.  They  do  not  much  concern  themselves  to 
cover  the  nude  portions  of  their  persons,  which  are  already 
pretty  fully  developed.  A  smaller  negro  girl  wears  nothing 
else  than  a  girdle  of  tufts.  A  carefully  veiled  Abys- 
sinian miss  is  brought  before  us,  a  Galla  girl,  the  noblest  of 
all  coloured  races ;  the  owner  points  to  her  graceful  limbs, 
uncovers  her  agreeable  brown  face  with  its  large  speaking 
eyes,  and  is  prepared  for  all  the  investigations  of  the  pur- 
chaser. He  next  opens  the  mouth  of  a  little  Moor  who  is 
among  them  that  his  white  teeth  may  be  inspected,  and  draws 
our  attention  to  his  plump  and  firm  thighs.  The  prices 
mentioned  to  us  are:  for  a  male  slave  of  black  race  £8  to 
£14,  and  for  a  female  £12  to  £16;  for  a  male  Abyssinian  or 


36  UPPER  EGYPT. 

Galla  (of  brown  colour)  £16  to  £20,  for  a  female  of  the  same 
race  £18  to  £26;  for  a  white  Circassian  woman  not  less  than 
£100  to  £200.  Slaves  are  valued  most  highly  some  years 
before  or  at  puberty,  when  they  are  still  pliant,  and  "their 
brain  is  not  yet  dry." 

Are  these  creatures  really  so  unfortunate?  An  account  of 
their  lives  as  given  by  some  of  themselves  will  show.  A 
child  in  a  tropical  village  in  an  evil  hour,  when  darkness  has- 
come  on,  removes  to  the  distance  of  a  few  steps  from  the  hut 
of  its  parents.  Suddenly  it  finds  itself  seized  by  a  strong 
hand,  a  gag  is  thrust  into  its  mouth  to  prevent  it  from  crying 
out,  and  away  it  is  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  a  man  for 
many  miles  in  the  dark.  It  is  taken  into  a  house  and  food 
and  drink  set  before  it,  but  it  refuses  these  and  cries  for  its 
mother.  Grief,  anxiety,  and  fatigue  struggle  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  poor  little  creature ;  the  last  conquers,  and  the 
child  falls  into  a  profound  slumber.  It  awakes,  finds  the  hut 
like  that  of  its  parents  and  hears  the  language  of  its  village, 
though  the  faces  are  strange.  A  swarm  of  youngsters  of  every 
age,  forming  part  of  the  body  of  stolen  children  here 
assembled,  gathers  round  and  makes  friendly  advances  to 
the  new  comer;  there  is  no  lack  of  food  and  drink,  there 
is  no  work  to  do,  and  in  a  short  time  the  child,  being  still 
at  an  age  when  feeling  is  not  yet  deep,  forgets  its  home 
and  parents.  The  stealing  of  children  is,  however,  a  mild 
form  of  procuring  slaves;  far  worse  are  those  well-known 
forays  or  razzias,  which  often  assume  the  appearance  of  open 
warfare,  when  bands  of  armed  slave-dealers  surprise  whole 
villages,  carry  into  slavery  women,  children,  every  one  who 
is  worth  the  trouble,  and  tear  asunder  all  family  ties. 

The  period  of  rest  does  not  last  long.  The  full  complement 
of  slaves  being  made  up  they  are  dragged  over  hill  and  dale, 
field,  and  desert ;  the  mule,  the  horse,  the  ox,  and  the  camel 
alternately  assist  them  on  their  journey;  they  are  con- 
veyed down  a  swollen  mountain  stream  in  a  crowded  boat; 
tropical  heat  and  torrents  of  rain  vie  with  each  other  in 
their  assaults  upon  their  tender,  ill-protected  bodies;  one 
child  after  another  is  attacked  by  fever,  the  sick  and  the 


SLAVERY.  37 

liealtliy  lie  huddled  together;  the  dead  are  buried  in  the 
sand;  ceaselessly  the  caravan  moves  onwards.  Some  rashly 
make  a  desperate  attempt  at  flight,  but  are  immediately 
caught,  and,  being  beaten  and  bound,  are  dragged  still 
onwards.  The  girls,  however  small  they  are,  are  sacrificed 
to  the  lust  of  their  drivers,  so  that  an  unviolated  female 
slave  is  a  great  rarity.  At  last  they  reach  a  town.  The 
captives  are  shut  up  in  confinement,  from  which  they  are 
brought  out  fettered  at  night  for  a  promenade;  on  the 
market  day  they  are  sold  by  public  auction,  the  would-be 
purchasers  feeling  their  limbs,  making  them  leap  about,  and 
opening  their  mouths  as  if  it  were  a  horse  market.  The 
highest  bidder  gets  the  goods  that  please  him,  singly  or  in 
groups.  The  companions  in  misfortune,  who  have  become 
friends  on  the  journey,  separate  in  tears;  though  in  the  more 
civilized  localities  the  Mohammedan  slave-dealer  commonly 
avoids  parting  brothers  and  sisters,  parents  and  children. 
The  new  owner  acts  pretty  much  like  the  old  one:  he  gives 
the  slave  children  plenty  of  food  for  a  time  till  they  have 
recovered  from  the  fatigues  of  the  journey,  and  then  sells 
them;  and  so  they  pass  from  master  to  master,  and  from 
place  to  place,  or  they  are  fattened  in  the  same  house  for 
years  and  left  without  work — especially  the  girls.  This  and 
the  tedium  of  their  position  have  both  a  moral  and  a  physical 
eflect,  the  girls  develop  early,  and  now  is  the  time  to  sell 
them  at  the  highest  price.  Indeed  they  are  eager  for  this 
themselves,  and  lay  warm  dough  upon  their  bosoms,  which 
is  said  to  hasten  the  swelling  of  the  breasts.  Meanwhile 
they  are  also  civilized,  that  is,  they  are  made  to  veil  them- 
selves and  not  appear  forward;  they  must  learn  to  believe 
in  Islam,  Mohammedan  names  are  bestowed  upon  them, 
•and  all  trace  of  their  native  ideas  as  far  as  possible  swept 
^way. 

The  semi-mature  maiden  is  now  sold,  and  if  she  is  merely 
brown  and  of  good  race,  if  she  is,  for  instance,  a  Galla  or 
Abyssinian,  her  lot  is  generally  by  no  means  hard.  If  a  man 
in  good  circumstance  takes  a  fancy  to  her,  she  shows  no 
reluctance,  since  she  is  not  therebj^  dishonoured,  but  proud 


38  UPPER  EGYPT. 

of  playing  the  part  of  a  wife  or  siti;  Ler  owner  provides  her 
with  clothes,  ornaments,  and  sweets  to  her  heart's  content, 
gives  her  male  and  female  servants,  allows  her  the  manage- 
ment of  the  house,  nay,  often  neglects  or  puts  away  through 
his  passion  for  her  his  own  wedded  wife.  And  their  little 
ladyships  know  how  to  play  their  part  very  well,  and  are 
fond  of  acting  the  tyrant.  They  are  ambitious  enough,  but 
their  love  is  mostly  deep  and  ardent;  they  are  faithful,  tidy, 
domesticated,  and  have  fine  sensibilities.  They  are  there- 
fore preferred  by  many  to  the  native  women.  Their  position 
is  by  no  means  that  of  a  mistress,  since,  on  the  one  hand,  no 
stigma  of  immorality  attaches  to  it,  though  the  free  women 
are  accustomed  to  despise  a  woman  who  is  merely  a  slave ; 
and  on  the  other  hand,  as  soon  as  they  become  mothers, 
they  are  free,  or  at  least  cannot  be  sold.  While  in  certain 
countries  the  gallant  is  wont  to  make  himself  scarce  when 
he  perceives  that  his  victim  is  enceinte,  or  as  soon  as  his 
child  is  born,  here  such  a  result  serves  as  a  closer  bond  of 
connection,  for  the  Moslem  is  not  allowed  to  deny  or  to  sell 
his  own  children.  Such  a  slave  has  even  this  advantage 
over  a  free  women,  that  she  cannot  be  divorced  and  sent 
away,  seeing  that  she  has  no  relatives.  It  is  not  rare  for  a 
female  slave  who  has  presented  her  master  with  a  child, 
especially  with  a  boy,  to  be  raised  to  the  position  of  actual 
wife. 

Of  course  fortune  does  not  smile  thus  upon  every  female 
slave,  especially  if  she  has  the  ill  luck  to  be  plain  or  black, 
to  belong  to  one  of  the  inferior  races,  or  to  prove  unfruitfuL 
Then  she  passes  often  from  hand  to  hand,  she  has  to  allow 
the  finery  that  has  been  presented  to  her  to  be  torn  from  her 
person — calamity  hard  to  bear — when  it  is  not  sold  along 
with  her,  and  she  sinks,  with  the  decrease  of  her  charms  and 
her  price  together,  lower  and  lower  in  the  scale  of  society. 
Or,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  slave  girl  is  bought  by  a  pro- 
curess, who  gives  her  an  education  according  to  her  own  taste. 
By  far  the  greater  number  of  slave  women,  most  at  least 
of  the  true  negresses,  are  employed  as  domestic  servants,  and 
the  highest  position  they  attain  is  the  dominion  of  the  kitchen. 


SLAVERY.  39 

If  their  behaviour  is  good  their  master  gets  them  a  black 
husband,  and  any  children  that  may  spring  from  this  black 
marriage  become  the  vendible  property  of  the  slave-raiser — 
of  course  with  this  restriction,  that  the  family  must  be  sold 
together.  It  is  the  rule,  however,  for  such  a  family  to  remain, 
and  to  wish  to  remain,  for  life  in  a  household,  constituting  the 
serving  element  in  it  perhaps  for  several  generations. 

The  male  slaves  enjoy  a  brilliant  career  more  seldom  than 
the  girls.  When  they  fall  into  the  hands  of  masters  who  are 
in  a  good  position  they  are  generally  well  fed  and  dressed, 
and  often  look  down  with  scorn  upon  men  who  are  free,  but 
are  also  hungry  and  ragged;  still  they  are  nothing  but  ser- 
vants who  may  be  sold  at  any  time,  and  have  not  their  future 
in  their  own  hands.  Many,  however,  gain  the  full  confidence 
of  their  masters,  transact  commercial  and  other  business  for 
them,  and  frequently  inherit  all  their  property.  Slaves  are 
often  set  at  liberty,  an  act  recommended  as  praiseworthy  by 
the  Prophet,  and  when  liberated  they  generally  receive  a  gift 
of  some  kind.  Such  persons  usually  retain  all  their  lives  a 
kind  of  dutiful  feeling  towards  the  family  to  which  they 
have  belonged,  and  often  prefer  to  remain  in  the  house 
of  their  masters  though  free.  Slaves  are  seldom  ill  treated 
in  these  parts,  and  punishment  is  rarely  greater  than  what 
is  deemed  necessary  to  train  them.  In  the  patriarchal 
Mohammedan  system  the  slave  has  more  the  position  of  a 
member  of  the  family  (whose  duty,  of  course,  is  merely  to 
serve),  and  an  injury  to  the  slave  is  an  injury  to  the  family. 
But  there  are  exceptions,  and  cruel  masters  may  be  found 
who  are  more  liberal  with  their  whip  than  with  their 
bread,  and  who  kick  the  poor  slaves  and  load  them  with 
heavy  fetters  to  prevent  them  from  running  away.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  exists  that  excellent  law  of  the  Koran,  that 
a  discontented  slave  may  demand  before  a  court  that  he  shall 
be  sold.  Their  treatment  is  less  harsh  too  for  the  reason 
that  they  may  become  dangerous,  or,  as  not  seldom  happens, 
may  commit  suicide,  whereby  the  slaves  themselves  lose  little, 
but  entail  a  loss  upon  their  owners. 

The  white  slaves,  male  and  female,  are  the  best  off.    They 


40  UPPER   EGYPT. 

are  now  almost  exclusively  of  Circassian  race  (formerly  they 
were  often  Greeks).  On  account  of  their  price  they  come  into 
the  hands  only  of  the  rich.  The  males  (Mamelukes)  often 
receive  a  superior  education  from  their  masters,  are  treated 
like  sons,  and  generally  pass  comfortable  lives.  A  considerable 
number  of  the  higher  officials  at  present  acting  in  Egypt  were 
once  such  slaves.  They  frequently  receive  in  marriage  the 
daughters  of  their  masters;  indeed  it  sometimes  happens  that 
a  father  purchases  a  good-looking  Mameluke  for  a  daughter 
lie  has  got  to  marry,  and  makes  him  his  son-in-law. 

The  white  slave  women  are  an  essential  ornament  of  the 
harem  of  the  great.  They  are  said  to  be  ambitious  of  power 
and  fond  of  finery.  The  colour  of  the  skin,  in  this  country 
as  elsewhere,  is  generally  regarded  as  pointing  to  superiority 
of  race  even  among  the  natives  themselves.  But  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  contempt  for  a  dark  skin,  whether  free  or  in 
slavery.  That  would  be  contrary  to  religion ;  besides,  the 
population  is  already  so  commonly  dark  skinned  that  it 
would  have  to  despise  itself 

CHANCE  MEETING  WITH  WOMEN. 

We  now  step  aside  into  a  dark  and  narrow  lane.  Our  way 
twists  and  turns,  so  that  in  its  course  it  follows  all  the  points 
of  the  compass.  Without  plan  or  guide  we  fearlessly  wander 
about  in  the  labyrinth.  Pistol  and  dagger  we  may  allow 
quietly  to  rest  in  our  pocket ;  the  poor  people  who  have  settled 
here  have  none  of  the  Grseco- Alexandrian  bandit  proclivi- 
ties about  them.  They  are  rather  inclined  to  suspect  us  of 
such  a  character,  timidly  retiring  from  us,  while  the  little 
children  regard  us  with  mistrust  and  terror,  and  run  off 
screaming. 

After  a  time  the  street  forks,  and  we  turn  to  the  left  by  way 
of  experiment.  An  invisible  female  voice  issuing  from  a  house 
suspiciously  asks  us  what  we  want.  We  find  we  are  caught 
in  a  cut  de  sac  and  turn  back.  We  now  come  upon  a  crea- 
ture entirely  enveloped  in  a  large  brown  or  striped  gray 
cloth,  and  as  our  glance  lights  upon  it  it  darts  in  at  an  open 


CHANCE  MEETING   WITH  WOMEN.  41 

door.  Another  creature  of  the  same  kind  that  does  not  at 
once  find  a  place  of  refuge  squeezes  itself  close  to  a  wall  till 
we  have  passed  by,  drawing  the  cloth  together  firmly  over  its 
face.  Turning  a  corner  we  suddenly  come  upon  a  third,  and 
catch  a  glimpse  of  the  face,  but  quick  as  lightning  its  head 
is  shrouded  in  its  mantle.  Wishing  to  act  with  propriety  we 
behave  as  if  we  had  observed  nothing,  and  turn  aside  to  let 
it  pass.  After  a  few  minutes  both  of  us — we  and  this  being 
— seized  with  curiosity,  turn  round  at  the  same  moment; 
our  eyes  again  meet,  and  the  two  large  black  beaming  orbs 
betray  to  us  tliat  under  the  uneasy  covering  a  heart  warm 
as  our  own  is  beating,  perhaps  beating  for  us.  Wherefore 
then  this  fear,  this  flight,  this  anxiety;  what  crime  have  we 
committed;  are  we  robbers  or  enemies;  are  we  hunters  laying 
our  plans  to  catch  the  gentle  gazelle  ?  Modesty  will  have 
it  so ;  we  are  men,  and  unbelievers  to  boot,  and  the  creature 
we  have  just  seen  is  a  woman.  We  meet  quite  a  drove  of  such 
modest  walking  suits  of  clothes,  who  lay  their  heads  together, 
like  cows  before  a  wolf,  and  form  square  against  us  with  their 
backs.  The  veil  which  the  bolder  ladies  of  the  capital  wear, 
and  which  allows  the  eye,  the  mirror  of  the  heart,  to  be  seen, 
is  not  worn  by  the  fair  sex  in  the  provincial  town,  and  they 
have  always  their  hands  ready  at  both  sides  of  the  slit  in 
front  of  the  face,  in  order  that  they  may  at  once  conceal  their 
features  with  their  outer  wrapper  in  times  of  danger,  that  is, 
when  a  man's  form  becomes  visible.  A  woman  that  does  not  do 
this  is  certainl}'-  of  doubtful  character,  or  else  we  have  become 
intimately  acquainted  with  her,  and  have  seen  her  fully  on 
some  former  occasion  as  in  attending  her  medically,  in 
which  case  veiling  before  us  is  no  longer  thought  of  It  is 
not  the  case  that  good-looking  women  are  ready  to  let 
themselves  be  seen,  while  old  ones,  on  the  contrary,  when 
neither  dangerous  nor  likely  to  run  any  danger,  are  not  so 
particular. 

We  were  surprised  at  the  walking  suits  of  clothes,  but  we 
now  light  upon  one  riding.  The  ladies  of  the  East  are  still  as 
good  equestrians  as  formerly  in  the  time  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  sit  so  firm  and  secure  on  the  saddle  of  their  donkeys, 


42  UPPER   EGYPT. 


or 


with  stirrups  buckled  high  up,  that  the  business  of  sucklin 
is  never  interrupted  even  while  they  are  riding.  The  eastern 
lady,  unlike  the  European  lady,  has  no  scruple  about  riding 
with  legs  astride.  These  respectable  women  are  rarely  met 
with  in  the  principal  streets,  and  never  in  the  markets,  but 
chiefl}^  in  the  minor  streets.  In  other  countries  a  state  of 
matters  the  reverse  of  this  may  be  remarked. 

VISIT  TO   THE  INTERIOR   OF   A   HOUSE. 

We  meet  a  well-dressed  native  gentleman  with  whom  we 
are  acquainted,  and  are  soon  engaged  in  a  discursive  conver- 
sation with  him,  whicli  it  seems  desirable  to  carry  farther 
undisturbed  and  in  comfort.  Tefaddal  ("If  you  please"), 
he  says  to  us,  shaking  and  rattling  the  bar  of  a  gigantic 
wooden  lock  on  the  door  of  a  handsome  house.  We  hesitate 
to  accept  his  abrupt  invitation  to  dine  with  him,  but  the 
adherent  of  the  Bedouin  religion  is  in  earnest.  While  we 
stand  hesitating,  he  takes  us  kindly  by  the  hand  a^id  half 
pulls  us  over  the  threshold  of  the  small  middle  door,  that  is 
just  opened  from  behind.  "Your  faces!  Cover  yourselves!" 
he  calls  out,  gently  detaining  us,  and  clapping  his  hands,  as 
he  enters  alone  the  sanctuary  of  the  house.  We  hear  some 
half-uttered  cries  of  fear,  whimpering  children's  voices, 
whispered  scolding,  and  smothered  giggling.  In  a  few 
minutes  the  inmates  of  the  harem,  thus  taken  by  surprise, 
have  fled  to  their  hiding  places,  and  our  host  invites  us  to 
step  into  the  interior  of  the  house,  now  no  longer  debarred  to 
us.  He  might,  in  accordance  with  custom,  have  preferred  to 
order  soft  carpets  to  be  spread  for  his  guest  on  the  stone 
bench,  or  floor  of  the  entrance  hall,  without  disturbing  his 
family.  We  follow  him,  and  passing  along  the  narrow  lobby 
and  round  a  corner  that  prevented  us  from  seeing  farther 
enter  a  spacious  courtyard. 

The  Courtyard. — This  open,  airy  space,  and  the  half- 
covered-in  sheds  and  porticoes  (sufa)  open  on  the  side  next  it, 
serve,  at  least  among  the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  the  pro- 
vincial population,  as  the  general  family-room.     Here  both 


VISIT  TO   THE   INTERIOR   OF   A   HOUSE.  43 

women  and  clnldren,  in  company  with  sheep,  goats,  fowls,  and 
pigeons,  spend  the  greater  part  of  their  time,  not  troubling 
themselves  about  the  common  belief,  according  to  Avhich  they 
pass  a  monotonous  existence  imprisoned  in  the  harem.  Here 
the  wife  who  has  to  work  takes  her  meals  along  with  her 
children,  eating  the^scraps  which  her  husband — and  his  friends 
if  he  has  had  guests — has  left  over;  here  is  the  sitting-room 
for  the  female  gossips  of  the  town;  here  the  merry  daughters 
and  their  playmates  sing  their  songs  to  the  accompaniment 
of  the  inevitable  darahuka  (a  kind  of  small  drum).  Among 
the  richer  class  the  date-palm  or  something  green  is  planted 
in  the  courtyard  where  possible. 

The  Kitchen. — One  of  the  side  rooms  is  occupied  by  the 
kitchen,  which  is  almost  wall-less  towards  the  court.     The 
fireplace  is  either  built  of  clay,  the  favourite  form  being  that 
of  a  low  stair  with  holes  containing  the  fire  let  into  the  top; 
or  all  the  needs  of  the  household  are  satisfied  year  after  year 
by  a  fireplace  of  loose  stones  such  as  one  might  improvise  in 
the  open  air  when  travelling.    The  fire  must  be  low,  since  the 
women  squat  before  it  when  cooking,  as  standing  is  highly 
unpleasant  to  them.     The  use  of  any  kind  of  stove  does  not 
seem  to   be  appreciated  anywhere.     In   cooking,  a  copper 
pot,  without  a  handle,  or  an  earthenware  saucepan,  is  used, 
and  these  vessels  do  not  appear  very  secure  as  they  sit  half 
on  half  oflT  the  fire.     Only  a  portion  of  the  fire  above  the 
gradually  rising  heap  of  ashes  touches  the  pot  and  slowly 
cooks  the  victuals,  a  large  square-shaped  fan  being  used  to 
make  it  burn  more  briskly;  the  rest  of  the  fire  crackles  mer- 
rily up  without  having  any  useful  eflfect,  and  escapes  outside 
by  a  small  opening  in  the  roof,  which  is  formed  of  reeds  and 
beams,  black  with  soot,  but  apparently  incombustible.     The 
kitchen  utensils,  the  plates  and  other  dishes  of  tinned  copper, 
wood,  or  earthenware;  the  iron  pans,  the  wooden  spoons  and 
ladles,  lie  scattered  over  the  earthen  floor  of  the  kitchen;  or 
the  earthen  kneading  trough,  and  the  copper  washing  tub, 
in  shape  like  a  gigantic  plate,  have  been  placed  over  them  in 
order  to  preserve  them  from  being  meddled  with  by  the 
sportive  goats  and  pigeons.    Those  utensils  not  intended  for 


44*  UPPER  EGYPT. 

immediate  use  are  placed  upon  an  open  shelf,  or  put  away  in 
a  picturesque  clay  cupboard.  The  turbid  muddy  water  of  the 
Nile  is  kept  in  a  tall  cylindrical  vessel  of  clay  hung  upon  a 
frame,  rounded  buckets  of  wood  or  leather,  or  tin-plate  mugs 
being  dipped  into  this  vessel  when  necessary;  sometimes 
also  it  is  kept  in  large  narrow-mouthed  heavy  pitchers  with 
handles  (balas).  A  small  portion  trickles  pure  and  clear, 
drop  by  drop,  through  the  pores  of  the  cylindrical  clay  vessel 
into  a  vessel  placed  below  it,  in  which,  if  the  whole  does  not 
stand  in  a  close  wooden  box,  ants,  centipedes,  perhaps  also 
lizards  and  serpents,  refresh  and  bathe  themselves.  The 
drinking  water  is  poured  into  porous  vessels  of  clay,  in  which 
it  is  cooled  by  the  rapid  evaporation  that  takes  place  from 
the  dryness  of  the  air.  Water  for  washing  is  drawn  up  by 
a  rope  and  bucket  from  wells  in  the  court  of  no  great  depth, 
and  always  brackish.  After  it  has  been  used  for  washing 
utensils,  or  for  cleansing  the  person,  it  is  either  poured  out  in 
the  court,  the  soil  of  which  soon  absorbs  it,  or  it  is  carried 
off  by  a  deep  narrow  funnel-shaped  sink. 

Rooms  on  the  Court- yard. — In  the  middle  of  the  court 
rise  cylindrical  structures  of  clay,  usually  having  rounded 
dome-shaped  tops.  These  are  intended  for  a  pigeon-house,  a 
house  for  fowls,  an  oven,  a  corn-store,  or  a  pantry.  The  rooms 
situated  on  the  ground-floor  in  the  irregular  mass  of  build- 
ings surrounding  the  court,  and  which  are  almost  devoid  of 
windows,  serve  for  magazines,  or  in  winter  for  warm  sitting 
and  sleeping  rooms.  In  the  clothes-room  the  articles  of  dress 
liang  openly  upon  cords,  or  are  shut  up  in  green  boxes  along 
with  the  ornaments  and  valuables.  Wardrobes  and  chests  of 
drawers  are  scarcely  to  be  found,  though  wall-presses  with 
doors  are  sometimes  met  with.  In  these  rooms,  therefore,  the 
greatest  disorder  usually  reigns.  One  of  the  rooms  opening 
on  the  court,  cleaner,  more  spacious,  and  better  lighted  than 
the  others,  and  usually  fitted  up  with  some  elegance,  is  the 
mcmdara,  in  which  many  receive  their  guests;  it  is  thought 
preferable,  however,  to  have  this  room  in  an  outer  court,  sepa- 
rate from  the  inner  one  where  the  women  are.  In  the  warm 
but  dark  sitting-room  opening  to  the  court  the  family  circle 


VISIT  TO  THE  INTERIOR  OF  A  HOUSE.  45 

gathers  in  the  winter  evenings  before  the  open  brazier,  in 
the  dim  light  of  a  cup- shaped  hanging  lamp  of  glass,  or  of  a 
small  shallow  lamp  of  antique  shape  supplied  with  viscid, 
sooty  oil,  and  standing  in  a  niche  of  the  wall  blackened  by 
its  smoke.  In  recent  times,  however,  petroleum  has  been 
extensively  introduced.  The  sleeping  rooms  are  almost  en- 
tirely without  windows,  or  if  there  are  a  few  slits  b}^  way  of 
window  they  are  papered  over  in  order  to  keep  out  the  cold 
night  air.  The  sleepers  lie  upon  a  portion  of  the  earthen 
floor  at  the  side  of  the  room  purposely  raised  above  the  rest, 
and  on  which  a  straw  mat  and  a  carpet  are  spread,  or  less 
frequently  upon  a  wicker-work  bedstead  of  palm  branches; 
such  bedsteads,  however,  are  quite  useless  in  summer  on 
account  of  the  multitudes  of  bugs  they  harbour.  Mosquito 
curtains  and  European  bedsteads  of  iron  are  sometimes  found 
in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy.  The  sleeper  keeps  half  his 
clothes  on,  and  in  summer,  therefore,  requires  no  covering; 
in  the  colder  nights  he  draws  his  ordinary  wrapper  (piilayeh) 
over  him,  in  winter  he  adds  a  woollen  coverlet  and  a  heavy 
quilted  cotton  one  besides.  So  soon  as  the  spring  sun  shines 
into  these  dark  rooms  their  human  occupants  desert  them  to 
sleep  in  airier  apartments  or  in  the  open  air,  and,  wakening 
from  their  winter  sleep,  the  army  of  bugs,  flies,  mosquitoes, 
fleas,  lice,  sugar- mites,  ants,  cockroaches,  black  beetles, 
scorpions,  serpents,  geckos,  rats,  and  mice  celebrate  their 
entry. 

The  Reception-room. — Having  cast  upon  all  these  sur- 
roundings a  passing  glance,  we  observe  the  restless  and  sus- 
picious looks  of  the  hospitable  lord  of  the  harem,  who  cannot 
attribute  our  survey  to  mere  curiosity,  and  at  his  earnest 
invitation  we  mount  the  stair,  which  is  jammed  in  between 
the  walls,  and  consists  of  high  steps  covered  with  wood.  We 
enter  a  well-lighted  and  spacious  saloon,  the  ka'a,  called  also 
tdbaJca,  as  being  in  the  first  story,  the  salamlih  of  the  Turks. 
The  floor  consists  of  slabs  of  stone,  or  of  a  mass  of  clay  and 
sand  smoothed  on  the  surface  and  hardened  almost  to  the  con- 
sistency of  m'arble.  The  walls  are  white-washed  or  show  an 
earthy  surftice,  have  numerous  niches,  and  are  adorned  with 


46  UPPER  EGYPT. 

a  few  verses  of  the  Koran  framed  and  glazed,  here  and  there 
also  with  sheets  of  pictures  of  Arabic  or  Frankish  production. 
The  ceiling  is  composed  of  longitudinal  and  transverse  layers 
of  the  midribs  of  palm  fronds,  with  a  coating  of  clay  and  lime 
above,  and  is  supported  by  rough  palm  stems  stretched  across 
and  bending  downwards  a  considerable  distance  into  the 
room.  In  the  houses  of  wealthier  persons  we  find  an  artistic 
panelled  ceiling  of  mosaic.  We  are  glad  to  observe  there  is 
no  glass  in  the  windows,  and  much  prefer  the  cool  air  stream- 
ing in  through  the  unglazed  apertures,  or  conveyed  down 
through  the  roof  by  the  ventilator  above.  When  it  becomes 
too  cool  we  have  simply  to  close  the  shutters  on  the  side  next 
the  wind. 

Across  the  far  end  of  the  room  runs  a  low  bench  of  stone 
or  clay  projecting  several  feet.     Over  the  mattress  that  covers 
it,  and  is  stuffed  with  wool  or  cotton,  is  spread  a  bright- 
coloured  cloth  or  a  carpet  hanging  down  in  folds  in  front. 
The  cushions,  which  are  of  the  same  material  and  colour,  but 
without  any  breach  of  propriety  may  be  different,  lie  at  fixed 
intervals  free  and  resting  against  the  wall,  and  thus  the 
famous  divan  is  formed.     On  the  floor  along  the  sides  of  the 
room  a  splendid  Persian  carpet  is  spread  over  a  straw  mat, 
and  on  it  next  the  wall  are  laid  cushions  on  which  to  recline. 
No  other  furniture  or  utensils  are  here  except  some  water- 
coolers  on  window  ledges,  shelves,  or  niches  in  the  wall,  and 
religious  manuscripts  with  black,  red,  and  gold  letters.     Our 
host  invites  us  to  seat  ourselves  beside  him  on  the  divan,  but 
we  cannot  succeed  in  finding  a  comfortable  position,  since 
the  cushion  behind  lies  too  far  backwards.     To  try  to  touch 
the  cushion  with  our  back  and  then  stretch  our  legs  straight 
out   does   not   seem   either   becoming   or    convenient;    the 
best  we  can  do  is  to  lay  a  cushion  at  our  side  and  rest  the 
forearm  upon  it.     Our  oriental  friend  looks  with  a  smile 
upon  our  straining  trousers  and  our  cumbersome  boots,  while 
he  himself,  taking  off  his  slippers,  steps  upon  the  soft  couch, 
and  crossing  his  legs,  seats  himself  at  tlie  very  back  of  the 
divan  with  the  wall  cushions  to  support  him  behind.    In  his 
hand  he  holds  a  fan,  that  is,  a  flat  piece  of  straw-plait  with  a 


VISIT   TO   THE   INTERIOR   OF   A   HOUSE.  47 

handle,  and  with  this  he  fans  himself  and  drives  away  the 
flies,  the  great  plague  of  southern  countries. 

Taking  Coffee. — A  servant,  a  slave,  or  an  obedient  son 
enters,  and  with  his  left  hand  on  his  heart  hands  us  the 
pipe  of  ceremony,  the  stem  of  which  is  five  feet  long,  richly 
adorned  with  silk  and  silver-wire,  and  hung  with  tassels.    The 
tiny  dish  of  red  clay  at  the  lower  end  of  the  stem,  that  forms 
the  pipe  bowl,  is  already  filled  above  the  brim  with  fine  cut 
Syrian  tobacco,  mixed  perhaps  with  the  raw  green  tobacco  of 
the  country;  a  live  coal  carried  with  a  pair  of  tongs  or  in  the 
hollow  of  the  bare  hand  sets  the  narcotic  in  a  glow  (if  the 
careful  attendant  himself  has  not  already  set  the  pipe  agoing), 
we  place  to  our  lips  the  costly  amber  mouth-piece,  smooth  as 
glass  and  almost  large  enough  to  fill  the  mouth,  and  ''blow 
a  cloud"  with  all  the  dignity  of  an  oriental.     In  a  little  the 
attendants  again  appear,  halting  respectfully  at  the  door  of  the 
chamber.    One  carries  a  tray,  in  the  middle  of  which  there  is 
a  coffee-pot,  picturesquely  surrounded  with  minute  porcelain 
cups  without  handles,  placed  in  as  many  small  stands  of  brass 
or  filigree,  shaped  like  egg-cups.    The  second  attendant  pours 
the  black-coloured  beverage  into  the  cups,  the  third  takes  hold 
of  the  metallic  support  which  receives  the  cup  and  hastens 
to  us  with  it.    We  grasp  the  elegant  apparatus  carefully  with 
our  fingers,  but  as  we  hold  it  up  before  our  eyes  and  turn  it 
round  and  round  admiringly,  the  law  of  the  conduction  of 
heat  is  more  and  more  feelingly  brought  home  to  us  through 
the  metal  support.    The  heat  at  last  becomes  so  great,  that  we 
give  our  hand  a  jerk  and  spill  a  little  of  the  boiling  hot 
liquid  which  fills  the  cup  to  the  very  brim,  and  if  we  had  not 
the  presence  of  mind  to  change  our  fingers  alternately  we 
should  run  the  risk  of  burning  our  hand,  breaking  the  cup, 
and  staining  our  clothes,  the  divan,  and  the  floor.     When  we 
succeed  in  sipping  the  remainder,  our  mouth  being  now  more 
inured  to  the  heat,  and  as  we  and  our  host  exchange  ex- 
pressions of  thanks  by  mutual  movements  of  the  hand  to 
the  forehead  and  mouth,  the  attendant  takes  the  cup  from 
us,  covering  it  with  his  hand,  and  retires  backwards  to  the 
door  without  turning  his  face  away  from  us. 


48  UPPER  EGYPT. 

In  the  meantime  dinner  has  been  got  ready,  having  been 
delayed  at  little  in  order  that  some  more  fowls  should  be 
roasted,  and  various  additions  made  to  the  ordinary  meal, 
in  honour  of  the  unexpected  guest.  But  of  the  meal  we  shall 
treat  elsewhere. 

The  Terrace. — After  dinner  our  host  conducts  us  up  to 
the  terrace  or  j9^a?/orm,  which  is  half  roofed  in,  seldom 
entirely  roofless,  open  towards  the  north,  and  surrounded  by 
walls.  We  express  our  desire  to  mount  to  the  flat  and  en- 
tirely open  roof  above  in  order  fully  to  enjoy  the  prospect ;  but 
with  this  wish  he  does  not  compl}'-,  as  he  might  thereby  incur 
the  displeasure  of  his  suspicious  neighbours,  whose  harem 
might  thus  be  exposed  to  our  view.  Besides,  there  is  no  stair 
leading  up  to  it.  We  content  ourselves,  therefore,  with  the 
view  from  the  terrace.  Here  in  winter  some  little  sunny  and 
sheltered  spot  may  always  be  found  where  the  limbs  stiffened 
with  the  morning  frost  may  be  warmed  and  strengthened  in 
the  sun  as  he  gradually  rises  in  the  heavens.  Here  the  inhabi- 
tants withdraw  in  summer,  and  enjoy  their  siesta  under  the 
shade  of  the  roof,  and  fanned  by  the  cool  north  wind.  And 
in  summer  nights,  after  the  toil  and  trouble  of  the  day,  what 
can  be  more  agreeable  than  to  stretch  oner's  self  out  here  on 
the  soft  couch  of  carpets,  under  the  starry  splendour  of  the 
southern  sky,  with  a  loving  wife  and  merry  crowd  of  children 
around,  and  to  sink  into  the  land  of  dreams  with  pleasing 
thoughts  of  the  delights  of  earthly  existence. 

The  Harem. — There  are  not  many  upper  rooms,  but  they 
are  more  pleasant  and  spacious  than  the  holes  of  rooms  on  the 
ground  floor.  No  second  stair  leads  to  a  higher  story.  Those 
closely-grated  windows  that  look  into  the  court  opposite  to 
us  conceal  no  doubt  many  of  the  secrets  of  the  harem ;  the 
occupants  have  certainly  ascended  from  the  court  and  observed 
us,  but  we  try  in  vain  to  obtain  a  sight  of  anything  except 
darkness  through  the  narrow  openings  between  the  crossed 
bars.  A  private  stair  leads  from  the  court  to  these  apartments 
to  which  no  stranger  can  have  access. 

The  plan  of  the  houses  is  naturally  very  different  accord- 


SUMMONS  TO  A  SICK  WOMAN.  49 

ing  to  the  taste  and  the  means  of  the  owner  or  builder.  The 
above  arrangement  is  in  general  the  rule  in  these  parts. 
The  use  to  which  the  different  apartments  are  put  also  varies 
according  to  taste  and  the  season  of  the  year ;  at  one  time  the 
door  room,  at  another  the  mandara,  at  another  the  tabaka 
or  the  sufa,  opening  to  the  court  being  used  as  reception 
room;  while  others  allow  no  male  guests  into  the  house,  but 
entertain  them  in  their  warehouse,  situated  elsewhere. 

ANCIENT  EGYPTIAN  DWELLING-HOUSE. 

A  general  survey  of  the  house  and  its  arrangements 
reminds  us  how  closely  the  plan  corresponds  with  that  of 
an  ancient  Egyptian  dwelling-house.  That,  too,  had  a  general 
wall  of  unburned  bricks,  a  court,  court-room  or  mandara, 
store-room,  and  other  chambers  round  the  court,  folding 
doors  with  wooden  lock,  ventilator  on  the  roof,  rooms  in  the 
first  story,  and  grated  windows.  But  the  ancient  Egyptians 
had  more  taste  and  more  artistic  feeling  than  the  moderns. 
They  did  not,  like  the  middle  classes  of  the  present  day,  con- 
tent themselves  with  bare  walls,  but  applied  ornament  every- 
where, painted  all  the  walls,  and  were  fond  of  decorative  fur- 
niture. Guests  received  on  entering  a  small  cup  of  wine 
instead  of  coffee,  and  instead  of  the  pipe  a  nosegay. 

SUMMONS  TO   A  SICK  WOMAN. 

In  the  meantime  the  neighbourhood  has  become  aware  of 
the  presence  of  a  Frank.  In  the  eyes  of  the  common  people 
every  Frank  is  still  a  doctor.  A  neighbour  comes  to  our 
host  and  begs  him  to  use  his  good  offices  with  us  "for  some 
medicine  to  his  "house,"  that  is,  his  wife.  We  ask  to  see  the 
patient  first,  to  which  he  demurs,  but  latterly  consents.  We 
are  fortunately  not  without  some  skill  in  the  art  of  ^sculapius, 
and  gladly  embrace  this  single  opportunity  allowed  us  of 
becoming  more  closely  acquainted  with  "  the  forbidden  ones" 
without  incurring  any  risk. 

The  patient  has  already  gone  through  a  variety  of  cures; 


50  UPPER  EGYPT. 

she  has  had  to  swallow  the  ink  of  many  verses  of  the  Koran; 
she  has  been  be-read,  be-written,  be-danced,  fumigated,  dis- 
enchanted, rubbed,  and  worked  all  over,  till  the  master  of  the 
house  has  resolved  as  a  last  desperate  step  to  call  the  doctor. 
All  the  way  to  the  house  we  have  to  listen  to  encomiums  on 
the  true  art  of  medicine  and  on  our  own  kindness  and  wisdom, 
for  the  oriental  is  a  master  of  flattery  and  compliment. 
We  enter  after  the  inmates  have  been  made  aware  of  the 
sight  that  is  to  be  presented  to  them.  The  court  is  filled 
with  a  great  crowd  of  women  who  have  come  out  of  sympathy 
to  check  and  shorten  with  the  gift  of  eloquence  the  patient's 
attack  of  fever.  All  that  we  see,  however,  is  a  lot  of  bundles 
of  clothes  lying  together,  and  resembling  a  bird's-eye  view  of 
a  crowd  of  people  holding  up  umbrellas.  We  march  on  to 
our  examination,  and  find  the  patient,  who  is  veiled,  lying  in 
an  open  apartment  next  the  court.  Her  hand  has  to  be 
almost  forcibly  drawn  forward  to  let  us  feel  her  pulse,  and 
it  is  only  after  our  repeated  request,  which  is  supported  by 
the  master  of  the  house,  that  a  very  foul  tongue  is  protruded 
through  a  slit  in  the  robe  enveloping  her,  which  is  otherwise 
quite  close.  The  slit  is  shifted  when  the  cheek,  the  eye,  the 
forehead,  the  other  half  of  the  face,  has  to  be  examined,  in 
order  that  the  whole  countenance  may  not  be  shown.  When 
we  ask  the  patient  how  she  feels  the  answer  sounds  like  the 
oracle  of  a  sibyl  from  the  recesses  of  a  closed  temple. 

REVELATIONS. 

At  last  one  of  the  cloths  in  the  heap  opens  out  wider  and 
wider;  a  frightful  face,  above  whose  brow  there  projects  a 
tuft  of  hair  dyed  with  henna  of  a  bright  fox-red,  but  showing 
also  in  parts  its  natural  silver-gray  colour,  looks  boldly  round, 
and  thereupon  the  old  woman  begins  in  a  shrill  screeching 
voice  the  endless  story  of  her  sufferings.  Soon  the  younger 
generation  also  acquire  sufficient  courage  to  uncover  here  a 
hand,  there  an  eye  or  a  foot,  only  to  withdraw  them,  however, 
with  the  slightest  movement  on  our  part.  But  gradually 
we  inspire  more  confidence;  our  medical  utterances  afford 


REVELATIONS.  51 

consolation  and  hope ;  the  figures  uncover  themselves  more 
completely,  and  for  a  longer  period;  two  coal-black  eyes  are 
fastened  upon  us,  each  encircled  by  a  black  ring  produced 
by  painting  the  rims  of  the  eyelids  with  antimony,  the  eyes 
themselves  large  and  fiery,  but  with  a  somewhat  squinting 
look  on  account  of  a  spot  on  the  pupil.  The  large  eye  is 
the  strong  point  with  Egyptian  women,  but  also  the  weak 
point,  as  it  is  commonly  affected  with  some  disease  or  marked 
by  some  defect.  The  blackening  of  the  eyelids  was  a  general 
custom  among  the  ancient  Egyptians  also,  not  only  with  the 
women,  but  even,  as  is  still  sometimes  the  case,  with  the  men. 
The  well-shaped  and  not  too  small  mouth  of  the  beauty 
now  regarding  us  smiles  upon  us  with  innocent  frankness. 
The  covering  for  the  head,  made  of  a  coloured  woollen 
stuff  of  light  texture,  over  which  Egyptian  women  throw 
before  going  out  the  mantle  which  is  in  universal  use,  has 
meanwhile  become  loose,  and  has  to  be  again  tightly  wrapped 
round  the  hair,  ears,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the  breast,  so 
that  the  oval  countenance,  the  hair  above  the  forehead,  and 
the  side-lock  alone  remain  visible.  During  this  process  of 
rearrangement  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  that  which  oriental 
women  keep  concealed  with  the  most  sensitive  delicacy, 
namely,  the  hair  that  crowns  the  head,  with  the  numerous 
slender  tresses,  black  as  the  plumage  of  the  raven,  that  flow 
down  on  all  sides.  The  coiffure  of  the  women  of  ancient 
Egypt  was  exactly  similar  to  this ;  even  the  side-lock  was 
not  wanting.  The  locks  behind  are  allowed  to  hang  freely 
down  the  back,  and  are  tied  at  the  extremities  with  long 
cords  of  red  silk  adorned  with  spangles  and  gold  coins. 
Curiously  shaped  trinkets  of  gold,  precious  stones,  or  pearls 
depend  from  the  ears;  golden  arrows  and  combs  are  stuck  in 
the  hair,  which,  where  it  meets  the  brow  and  sides  of  the  face, 
is  fringed  with  a  row  of  ducats,  sequins,  little  bells,  and 
flakes  of  pure  gold  prettily  wrought  into  the  most  singular 
forms.  An  oriental  woman  is  thus  somewhat  expensive  in 
her  ornaments,  for  she  disdains  to  wear  sham  trinkets. 
These  ornaments  are  procured  in  times  of  prosperity  before 
or  after  her  marriage,  and  are  worn  all  her  life  as  unemployed 


52      .  UPPER  EGYPT. 

capital  yielding  no  interest.  In  seasons  of  misfortune  the- 
woman  may  pawn  them,  but  she  never  sells  them  unless 
reduced  to  the  utmost  need.  As  they  last  her  whole  life 
they  are  ultimately  cheaper  than  the  fashionable  gewgaws  of 
European  cities  that  are  destined  to  be  cast  aside  at  the  end 
of  a  few  months.  The  breasts  are  covered,  but  hardly  concealed 
by  a  chemise  of  transparent  gauze.  Over  this  the  women  wear 
a  narrow-sleeved  garment,  which  fits  tightly  round  the  body, 
being  fastened  in  front  by  a  close  series  of  silken  knots  reach- 
ing from  beneath  the  breasts  downwards,  and  which  falls  in 
folds  straight  from  the  hips  to  the  feet.  (See  cut  of  Dancing  Girl 
in  Chap,  ill.)  Oriental  women  are  fortunately  unacquainted 
with  the  confining  instrument  called  a  corset,  and  are  still 
so  backward  in  civilization  as  to  be  unable  to  appreciate  a 
waist  of  wasp-like  tenuity.  The  legs  are  encased  in  a  wide 
sort  of  drawers,  which  are  fastened  under  the  knee,  but  are 
continued  down  to  below  the  edge  of  the  frock,  between  which 
and  the  feet  they  move  about  in  a  rather  picturesque  manner. 
This  style  of  drawers  is  not,  however,  in  universal  use. 
Instead  of  them  a  kind  with  legs  gradually  tapering  towards 
the  foot  is  often  worn.  In  addition  to  the  close-fitting  dress 
above  described,  the  women  belonging  to  the  towns  of  Upper 
Egypt  (see  the  accompanying  cut)  wear  a  loose  garment  of 
light  cotton  of  a  blue  colour,  or  with  bright  blue  stripes  and 
sometimes  embroidered.  This  garment  has  no  sleeves,  but  on 
each  side  there  is  a  long  slit  extending  from  the  shoulder 
nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  robe,  so  that  the  arms  can  be 
uncovered  at  any  time.  In  the  hot  summer  months  the  under 
garments  are  too  tight  for  comfort,  and  this  loose  robe  and 
the  drawers  are  all  that  are  worn  in  the  house.  Often,  in- 
deed, the  drawers  are  forgotten,  and  the  arm  being  carelessly 
lifted,  the  woman's  whole  profile  from  the  shoulder  to  the- 
ankles  is  disclosed  to  view.  These  women,  while  careful  to 
conceal  their  charms  out  of  doors,  are  careless  on  this  matter 
inside  the  house,  where  they  think  they  do  not  need  to  mind 
who  sees  them.  It  is  therefore  advisable  that  warning  should 
be  given  before  a  stranger  enters  the  house. 

The  feet  have  either  no  covering  at  all  to  prevent  one 


REVELATIONS.  53 

from  admiring  their  beauty,  or  they  have  their  natural 
nimbleness  impeded  by  clumsy  slippers.  Silver  clasps,  with 
little  bells  attached  to  them,  are  worn  round  the  ankles. 
Bracelets  of  pure  gold  or  silver  are  worn  on  the  wrists,  and 
«till  more  commonly  on  the  upper  arms.     Numerous  rings, 


-'■^4c, 


Woman  and  Child  of  Upper  Egypt. 

•either  with  or  without  stones,  deck  the  fingers,  but  the  fore- 
finger, with  which  they  attest  their  faith,  is  always  kept 
free  of  them.  The  shocking  nose-ring  is  not  intended,  as 
with  the  camel,  to  serve  as  a  means  of  keeping  the  wearer 
in  check,  but  the  women  themselves  desire  it  from  their 
husbands  as  a  charming  ornament.  Lastly,  we  manage  to 
see  many  other  proofs  of  an  abnormal  taste  in  the  form  of 
temporary  as  well  as  indelible  skin-painting  on  the  face, 
hands,  feet,  and  other  parts  of  the  body. 

A  number  of  little  light-footed  girls  run  about  in  the  court. 
They  are  dressed  like  their  elders,  except  that  the  innocence 
of  their  youth  spares  them  the  infliction  of'  the  heavy  outer 
mantle.     Already,  however,  they  begin  like  their  maturer 


54  UPPER  ?:gypt. 

sisters  to  practise  concealment  with  the  corners  of  their 
head-covering,  and  even  the  youngest  of  them  could  not  be 
induced  to  expose  her  head  to  view  completely. 

A  child  which  seems  too  old  to  be  still  receiving  suck  has 
firmly  fastened  on  the  open  breast  of  his  tender  mother.^  A 
thick  cape  keeps  the  cold  air  from  his  head,  which  is  thus 
early  concealed  from  view.  Sequins  and  ducats  are  clustered 
on  his  brow,  and  there  are  little  packets  on  his  breast  con- 
taining precious  spells  to  thwart  the  baneful  look  of  the 
envious. 

On  leaving,  according  to  traditional  practice  in  the  case  of 
a  medical  visit,  we  are  treated  to  sherbet,  that  is,  a  sweet 
liquor  made  from  the  juice  of  fruit  and  water,  and  served  in 
a  crystal  cup.  This  we  drain  at  one  draught,  as  expected 
by  the  servant,  who  attends  with  a  fringed  cloth  which  he 
holds  underneath  while  we  are  drinking,  and  with  which  we 
afterwards  wipe  our  mouths  (exactly  as  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians).  We  also  receive  perhaps  a  handkerchief  em« 
broidered  by  some  fair  hand,  but  as  a  rule  nothing  else,  unless 
it  may  be  some  trifle  wrapped  up  in  the  handkerchief 

A  DINNER. 

Meantime  evening  has  come  on,  and  we  return  to  our 
dwelling;  for  we  must  keep  ourselves  in  readiness  for  the 
dinner  that  a  well-to-do  citizen  intends  giving  this  evening 
in  celebration  of  some  such  event  as  a  betrothal,  a  circum- 
cision, or  a  wedding,  and  to  which  we,  as  being  among  the 
persons  of  most  distinction,  have  received  an  invitation  in 
the  course  of  the  day.  The  host  comes  in  person  to  our 
residence,  for  it  is  his  duty  to  conduct  the  guests  to  his 
house.  The  reception-room  is  already  filled  with  a  con- 
siderable number  of  people,  who  have  settled  themselves 
down  on  the  richly  carpeted  floor  in  front  of  the  cushions 
placed  against  the  wall. 

All  present  rise  up  to  welcome  the  newly  arrived  guest, 

^  According  to  the  injunction  of  the  Prophet  children  must  be  suckled  for 
two  years. 


A  DINNER.  55 

and  after  we  have  adjusted  ourselves  to  our  satisfaction  on 
the  carpet,  so  far  as  that  is  possible,  and  have  cleared  our 
throat,  we  receive  a  separate  salutation  from  each  of  the 
other  guests,  which  greetings  must  severally  be  returned  along 
with  a  movement  of  the  hand  to  the  forehead,  mouth,  and 
heart  to  give  emphasis  to  our  replies.  We  are  asked  regarding 
our  health,  and  we  do  the  like.  The  inquiries  follow  one 
after  another  in  stereotyped  and  often  very  ingenious  phrases, 
which  imply  a  bosom  friendship  that  has  lasted  for  years, 
but  which,  at  the  same  time,  have  no  other  result  than  that 
nobody  receives  any  enlightenment  as  to  the  health  of  the 
other,  for  the  answer  is  always  an  expression  of  thanks  or 
a  blessing,  and  nothing  more.  After  a  good  deal  of  time  has 
been  spent  in  such  compliments  and  ceremonies  we  begin  to 
talk.  From  the  weather,  of  which  there  is  in  this  region, 
properly  speaking,  none  at  all,  or  which,  at  least,  only 
changes  from  cold  to  warm  or  warm  to  cold,  we  pass  to  the 
prices  of  articles  of  food  and  other  commodities.  We  express 
our  opinions  upon  individuals,  all  the  more  gently  and  flatter- 
ingly the  nearer  the  persons  spoken  of  happen  to  be,  relate 
stories  and  adventures,  astonishing  feats  and  tales  about  ghosts, 
criticize  the  government  with  a  surprising  freedom  of  speech, 
and  propound  rather  sweeping  and,  in  truth,  horrible  political 
schemes.  The  conversation  is  agreeable,  at  the  same  time 
polite  and  ceremonious,  lively,  fanciful  and  eloquent,  with  a 
certain  picturesque  circumstantiality,  a  frequent  use  of 
similes  and  comparisons  to  make  the  speaker's  meaning 
clearer;  often  with  a  degree  of  pathos  and  demonstrativeness 
of  gesture,  which  contrast  strikingly  with  the  apparent  apathy 
that  the  Egyptians  preserve  on  other  occasions.  In  short, 
the  conversation  at  such  parties  is  often  in  the  highest  degree 
brilliant  and  intelligent  in  spite  of  the  amount  of  ignorance 
it  betrays,  and  the  superstition,  fanaticism,  and  fatalism  which 
are  seen  in  every  action  and  breathe  in  every  word. 

During  this  talk  that  precedes  dinner  the  guests  make  use 
of  nothing  to  invigorate  or  stimulate  the  physical  system, 
except  perhaps  a  mouthful  of  cold  water,  a  little  coffee, 
and  tobacco,  which  last  each  smoker  brings   rolled  up  in 


56  UPPER  EGYPT. 

a  fine  woollen  or  silken  pouch  along  with  his  pipe.  The 
rising  vapours,  the  sound  of  frying  and  similar  noises  in  the 
kitchen,  the  running  hither  and  thither  of  the  servants,  the 
whisperings  of  the  host,  and  other  signs,  indicate  that  the 
affair  is  not  going  to  end  with  the  small  cup  of  coffee  that  had 
been  promised  us  either  by  word  of  mouth  or  by  means  of  a 
note  of  invitation.  Soon  the  large  lamp  which  rests  in  the 
middle  of  the  hall  on  a  polygonal  stand  with  four  or  eight 
feet  (among  the  ancients  only  one  foot)  is  removed,  and  the 
stand  is  covered  with  an  enormous  circular  tray  or  plate  of 
metal  (usually  tinned  copper,  and  there  are  usually  engraved 
on  it  some  arabesques  and  pentagrams).  A  basket  con- 
taining round  flat  cakes  cut  in  two  sufficient  in  number  to 
satisfy  a  company  of  twice  the  size  if  they  were  to  get 
nothing  but  bread  and  water,  is  now  brought  in,  and  the 
cakes  are  placed  round  the  tray,  which  is  not  covered  with  a 
table-cloth.  Living  caryatids  of  the  male  sex  hold  lamps  high 
above  the  heads  of  the  guests;  a  cup-bearer  passes  round, 
carrying  a  water-bottle  on  his  arm ;  there  is  also  a  servant 
whose  duty  it  is  to  sweep  away  the  vermin.  The  guests 
arrange  themselves  on  a  carpet  round  the  tray,  usually  in 
companies  of  from  ten  to  twelve,  never  thirteen.  If  the  com- 
pany is  too  large  for  one  table  similar  arrangements  are  made 
in  other  parts  of  the  room  as  may  be  required.  A  servant 
goes  round  to  each  guest  with  a  vessel  of  water,  and  all  wash 
their  hands,  or  at  least  have  water  poured  over  the  tips  of  the 
fingers  of  their  right  hand.  They  all  then  lay  their  napkins 
across  their  knees,  and  turn  up  their  right  sleeve.  The  left 
hand  hangs  down  by  the  side,  and  is  kept  dry  for  use  in 
drinking  or  for  other  incidental  purposes. 

To-day  the  dinner  is  Turkish  (alia  turka),  that  is,  one 
viand  is  brought  in  after  the  other.  The  menu  is  a  long  one. 
Were  the  dinner  after  the  Arabic  fashion,  according  to  which 
all  the  viands  are  laid  on  the  table  at  once,  so  that  the  guests 
may  help  themselves  at  pleasure,  there  would  not  be  room 
for  the  great  variety  of  dishes.  A  large  bowl  of  soup  being 
served,  the  host,  after  squeezing  into  it  the  juice  of  some 
green  lemons  or  citrons  the  size  of  walnuts,  and  pronouncing 


A  DINNER.  57 

the  word  "bismillah"  (in  the  name  of  God),  dips  his  wooden 
spoon  into  the  bowl,  and  is  followed  by  all  the  other  guests. 
In  traversing:  the  distance  between  the  common  dish  and 
the  mouth  many  a  drop  and  solid  fragment  fall  upon  the 
table  and  the  cakes  of  bread.  In  the  well- spiced  soup 
lips  a  bit  of  boiled  meat  or  a  fowl,  which  the  master 
of  the  house  now  takes  out,  and  offers  in  pieces  to  his 
guests.  They  show,  however,  no  great  relish  for  it;  for 
already  a  colossal  breast  of  mutton  stuffed  with  chopped 
flesh,  onions,  rice,  raisins,  almonds,  and  hazel-nuts,  is  beheld 
in  the  hands  of  a  servant  in  the  background.  Scarcely  is  it 
placed  on  the  metal  plate  when  all  the  twelve  guests  fall 
upon  it  with  their  right  hands.  Each  tears  off  a  piece  of 
the  flesh,  which  has  been  first  boiled  soft  and  then  roasted. 
Where  it  is  found  rather  tough  two  guests  sitting  opposite 
one  another  begin  pulling  at  the  same  piece  until  it  gives 
way.  In  a  few  minutes  the  breast-bone  is  stripped  of  flesh, 
and  the  precious  stuffing  lies  dispersed  over  the  dish  from 
which  the  diners  convey  it  to  their  mouths  by  means  of 
wooden  spoons.  This  practice  of  all  eating  out  of  one  dish 
in  common,  and  using  the  hands  in  doing  so,  usually 
appears  to  Europeans  one  of  the  most  barbarous  usages 
of  the  East.  Yet  the  same  practice  was  followed  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  who  were  a  people  of  refined  and  formal 
manners,  as  well  as  by  the  Jews.  To  the  Oriental,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  seems  barbarous  in  Europeans  not  to  wash 
their  hands  before  and  after  eating,  although  the  utmost  care 
and  nicety  are  often  insufficient  to  prevent  them  from  being 
greased. 

The  breast  of  mutton  serves  as  a  foundation,  and  is  followed 
by  a  number  of  trifles,  such  as  vegetables  of  different  sorts, 
and  onion  sauces  with  small  pieces  of  flesh,  usually,  as  among 
the  ancients,  small  leo^s  of  mutton  with  the  bone.  These 
are  brought  in  on  small  plates,  and  each  guest  takes  what 
he  can  get  either  by  dipping  a  piece  of  bread  into  the  dish,  or 
by  forming  a  sort  of  pincers  with  his  piece  of  bread,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  seize  on  some  of  the  solider  contents  of  the  dish. 
Some  farinaceous  article,  roasted  maccaroni,   vermicelli,  or 


58  UPPER  EGYPT. 

pastry  now  appears.  We  have  already  seen  perhaps  six 
different  dishes.  Our  appetite  is  quenched,  and  after  the 
farinaceous  course  we  should  like  to  rise ;  but  we  have  not 
even  yet  reached  the  beginning  of  the  middle  of  the  ban- 
quet. Dish  still  follows  dish,  butcher-meat  alternating  with 
farinaceous  preparations.  The  master  of  the  house  offers 
us,  with  exclamations  of  delight,  a  fowl's  leg  prepared  with 
quite  extraordinar}^  skill.  The  other  guests  also  encourage 
us  to  eat,  offering  choice  morsels  to  us  as  well  as  to  one 
another;  but  the  climax  is  reached  with  the  sweet  tart 
(sanieh  baJddua).  The  whole  of  the  worshipful  circle  of 
gourmands  salute  its  entrj^  with  a  delighted  Ah  I  How 
wonderfully  does  it  lie  imbedded  in  the  deep  pie-dish.  The 
use  of  knives  to  cut  it  up  is  forbidden,  but  the  host  digs  out 
a  great  hole  with  his  fingers,  whereupon  all  the  guests  plunge 
in  their  fingers  at  the  breach  and  tear  out  fragments  of  the 
firmly  baked  composition,  until  the  whole  artistic  structure 
falls  in  ruins.  The  ancient  Egyptians  adopted  at  their  feasts 
another  way  to  remind  the  feasters  in  all  seriousness  of  the 
transitoriness  of  everything  earthly.  At  this  stage  of  the 
feast  servants  used  to  drag  round  the  room  the  image  of  a 
mummy. 

We  have  now  struggled  on  to  about  the  middle  of  the 
banquet.  The  small  plates  again  appear,  and  gratify  our 
palate  with  a  continually  ascending  scale  of  excellence  and 
sweetness.  Greatly  do  we  regret  having  so  soon  spoiled  our 
appetite.  We  are  becoming  giddy  with  our  exertions,  but 
we  are  not  yet  at  the  end;  for  a  huge,  massive,  and  juicy 
roast  still  remains  to  be  vanquished.  Even  experienced 
guests,  who  have  prepared  themselves  for  the  sumptuous 
repast  by  fasting  from  early  morning,  and  have  cautiously 
climbed  up  step  by  step,  sit  despairing  and  exhausted  before 
this  object  of  Titanic  magnitude.  The  company  at  last  hasten 
towards  the  close  of  the  repast.  Several  plates  now  offered 
are  mercilessly  rejected,  and  the  pilau  of  steamed  rice,  which 
invariably  concludes  the  feast,  is  placed  on  the  table  along 
with  a  cooling  sweet  rose-scented  jelly.  To  crown  the  whole 
the  guests  now  take  a  good  supply  of  this  delicate  prepar- 


BILL   OF   FARE.  59 

ation  into  their  well-crammed  paunches,  and  then  each  after 
the  other  rises  with  a  "Thank  God"  (which  serves  as  a  grace 
after  meat  as  the  "bismillah"  does  for  a  grace  before  meat), 
and  makes  his  way  as  quickly  as  j)ossible  to  the  washing- 
vessel.  The  host  is  the  last  to  rise,  as  he  was  the  first  to 
make  the  attack. 

The  foundation  of  the  feast  is  always  mutton.  The 
animals  are  slaughtered  for  the  purpose  on  the  day  of  the 
entertainment,  not  the  day  before,  and  if  possible  in  the 
house  itself  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of  the  government. 
No  important  feast  can  be  held  without  animals  being 
specially  slaughtered  for  the  occasion,  for  the  consumption 
of  flesh  is  then  so  considerable.  By  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians mutton  was  not  relished,  perhaps  was  not  eaten  at 
all;  and  their  numerous  flocks  of  sheep  were  kept  chiefly 
for  the  wool.  Beef  and  the  flesh  of  geese,  which  at  the 
present  day  are  but  slightly  esteemed,  formed  in  ancient 
times  the  basis  of  the  Egyptian  banquets,  which  were  then 
at  least  as  lavish  and  frequent  as  they  are  now.  At  the 
grander  entertainments  now-a-days  a  turkey  appears  on 
the  table  instead  of  a  goose. 

BILL   OF   FARE. 

We  cannot  omit  to  furnish  our  readers  with  the  entire 
menu  of  our  feast. 

1.  Eice  soup. 

2.  Dol'a  mahshi:  stuffed  breast  of  mutton.     (See  above.) 

3.  B^mieh  bur^ni:  the  bamieh  fruit  {Hibiscus  escule^ita)  boiled  and 
roasted  entire  with  flesh  and  a  great  deal  of  clarified  butter. 

4.  Kauirma  (Turkish) :  roast  meat  with  whole  onions. 

5.  Wdrak  mahshi.  In  making  this  dish  vine  or  cabbage  leaves  are 
filled  with  pounded  leaves  of  the  same  sort,  minced  meat,  onions,  rice, 
and  pepper,  and  fried  with  clarified  butter. 

6.  Kunafa  or  vermicelli.  A  dough  of  water  and  flour  not  very  tenacious 
is  pressed  through  a  perforated  mould,  which  forms  it  into  worm- 
like threads.  It  is  then  fried  with  clarified  butter,  then  sugar  and 
dripping  are  sprinkled  over  it,  and  lastly  it  is  boiled  above  a  coal  fire. 

7.  Moluchieh.  This  is  a  mucilaginous  vegetable  resembling  spinage, 
and  is  prepared  for  the  table  by  boiling  with  flesh-meat. 


60  UPPER  EGYPT. 

8.  Kuf  ta  or  meat-dumplings.  Minced  roast-meat,  rice,  and  onions  are 
made  into  little  balls  and  fried  with  clarified  butter. 

9.  Bating^n  ktita:  tomatoes  boiled  with  flesh. 

10.  S6mak  makli:  fish  baked  in  oil. 

11.  Sambtisek.  Dough  made  with  water  and  flour  is  rolled  out  into 
round  flat  cakes,  on  which  is  placed  minced  roast-meat  with  rice;  half 
the  dough  is  then  folded  over,  and  the  edges  are  pressed  together.  The 
whole  is  cooked  by  baking. 

12.  Kabab:  small  pieces  of  flesh  roasted  on  a  spit. 

13.  Jachni:  roast-meat  with  onion  sauce  or  made  into  a  ragout. 

14.  Faktis  mahshi.  The  soft  contents  of  the  fakus  fruit,  which  is  of 
the  gourd  family,  are  taken  out  of  the  shell  or  rind  and  mixed  with 
minced  meat  and  the  other  ingredients  mentioned  in  no.  5,  and  then 
replaced,  when  the  whole  is  boiled. 

15.  Bating^n  iswud  mucharrat.  The  black  batingan  fruit  (fruit  of 
the  egg-plant)  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  added  with  onions  to  broiled 
meat  and  boiled. 

16.  Sanleh  baklaua  or  sweet  tart.  (See  above.)  A  number  of  flour 
cakes  are  placed  in  the  dish,  and  between  each  pair  is  spread  a  layer 
of  butter.  Honey  is  spread  on  the  top  one,  and  the  whole  is  baked  in 
^n  oven. 

17.  Salk:  beet  boiled  with  flesh. 

18.  "Milk-rice:"  rice  and  milk  with  some  water  and  clarified  butter 
boiled,  to  which  are  afterwards  added  sugar  and  rose-water. 

19.  Mumb^r  mahshi:  pieces  of  intestine  filled  with  the  mixture 
already  mentioned  more  than  once  and  boiled. 

20.  Kabab  bi  dema:  meat  roasted  on  a  spit  with  a  plain  sauce. 

21.  Ful  achdar:  green  horsebeans  (both  pod  and  kernels)  boiled  with 
flesh. 

22.  Ldhma  muhdmmara:  a  large  roasted  joint.     (See  above.) 

23.  Baltisa:  sweet  jelly;  sugar  boiled  with  water  and  farina,  to 
which  honey  and  rose-water  are  added  while  cooling.  Almonds  are 
afterwards  stuck  in  the  jelly.     (See  above.) 

24.  Kus  mufalfal,  Turkish  pil<1,u:  steamed  rice  saturated  with  clarified 
butter.     (See  above.) 

AFTER   DINNER. 

The  Mussulman  washes  himself  only  with  pure  running 
water,  and  does  not  splash  about  in  a  basin.  A  servant 
pours  water  upon  the  hands  of  the  guest  from  a  large  metal 
vessel  having  a  spout,  and  generally  of  an  elegant  shape. 
The  dirty  water  falls  down  into  a  large  metal  bason,  having 
a  broad  rim  and  a  perforated  bottom,  through  which  the 
water  passes  into  a  cavity  at  its  base.  These  utensils  are 
exactly  like  those  which  were  in  use  among  the  ancient 


AFTER   DINNER.  61 

Egyptians.  Much  soap  is  employed,  but  they  do  not  use  it 
properly,  for  they  allow  the  lather  to  be  washed  off  the  hands 
before  it  has  time  to  act  upon  the  skin.  The  mouth  is  next 
carefully  cleansed  inside  and  outside,  and  all  this  goes  on 
quite  openly  in  the  dining-room.  The  unused  cakes  are 
now  collected,  and  the  numerous  crumbs  on  the  table  and 
floor  are  carefully  gathered  up.  Bread  is  reckoned  by  the 
Mohammedan  a  sacred  gift  of  God,  which  should  not  be 
wasted;  and  if  he  finds  a  small  piece  of  bread  anywhere 
on  the  ground  he  picks  it  up  and  kisses  the  hand  in  which 
he  holds  it.     Last  of  all,  the  metal  table  is  removed. 

The  company,  who,  without  any  breach  of  propriety,  give 
frequent  indications  of  satiety  by  loud  eructations,  again 
take  their  places  on  the  carpet  before  the  wall- cushions,  and 
conversation  is  resumed  under  the  influence  of  the  chibouk. 
The  attendants  now  have  their  turn  for  dining  (of  these  there 
is  no  small  number,  inasmuch  as  each  of  the  guests  brings 
along  with  him  his  own  servants,  slaves,  and  dependants), 
and  during  their  dinner  no  one  disturbs  them  except  for  some 
pressing  need.  At  last,  when  the  servants  have  satisfied 
themselves,  coffee  is  brought  in;  and  from  this  time  the 
company  have  no  more  peace,  for  they  all  begin  to  feel  uneasy 
in  the  stomach.  The  most  important  of  the  guests  gives  the 
signal  for  breaking  up.  All  seek  for  their  slippers,  which 
lie  about  at  the  threshold  of  the  door,  and  depart  to  their 
homes  overburdened  in  stomach  but  with  brain  quite  clear. 
Each  guest  is  preceded  by  a  servant  carrying  a  large  lantern, 
and  is  accompanied  on  his  way  by  the  host,  for  every  step 
taken  for  the  sake  of  a  guest  is  accounted  a  step  in  the  ascent 
to  paradise. 


A   PUBLIC- OFFICE. 


The  duties  of  those  who  have  to  provide  for  the  people's 
weal  and  woe  begin  with  the  bustle  of  trade  and  other 
business  at   an   early  hour   of  the  morning.     Already  the 


62  UPPER   EGYPT. 

tierce-looking  bands  of  Turkish  police  stand  armed  to  the 
teeth  at  the  open  gate  in  the  wall  of  the  extensive  seraglio 
(which,  be  it  noted,  signifies  a  palace  or  official  residence,  not 
a  harem).  Only  a  few  drunken  fellows,  overcome  by  the 
hashish  or  liquor  of  the  preceding  evening,  still  lie  snorting 
on  their  palm- twig  couches  or  stretched  out  on  the  stone-bench 
in  the  portico.  No  one  hinders  us  from  entering  the  spacious 
court,  which  is  surrounded  by  the  plain  white- washed  irregular 
buildings  of  the  palace  (Mudirieh).  Some  very  old  sycamores, 
dating,  like  the  palace  itself,  from  the  time  of  the  Mamelukes, 
spread  a  broad  shadow  which  is  very  grateful  during  the 
hot  hours  of  the  da}^  Under  the  protection  of  their  foliage 
the  head  of  the  province  is  accustomed  to  transact  his  busi- 
ness when  he  finds  the  air  of  the  court  hall  too  oppressive. 

COPTIC   SCRIBES. 

A  man  arrayed  in  a  voluminous  black  toga  with  wide  flow- 
ing sleeves,  his  face  well  covered  with  hair,  a  black  turban  on 
his  head,  and  an  ink-stand  of  massive  silver  in  the  girdle 
of  his  caftan,  hurries  past  us  with  a  friendly  greeting. 
We  take  him  to  be  a  Christian  priest  wearing  his  official 
robes  and  ornaments;  but  what  is  he  doing  in  a  secular  court 
of  the  Moslem  rulers?  We  feel  drawn  to  the  man  b}^  his 
courteous  demeanour,  and  make  his  acquaintance.  We  soon 
learn  that  he  is  ''of  our  kindred,"  for  we  certainly  believe  like 
him  in  the  Messiah,  read  the  gospel,  and  abhor  the  false 
prophet  Mohammed  and  his  accursed  brood.  Our  remark, 
that  to  the  Christian  all  men  are  brothers  meets  with  no 
acceptance,  and  turns  the  conversation  to  another  topic. 
We  are  informed  that  he  is  not  a  priest,  but  belongs 
to  the  strictly  exclusive  guild  of  Coptic  scribes.  He  con- 
ducts us  with  every  mark  of  politeness  into  the  scribes' 
hall,  where  we  find  a  number  of  our  ''kindred"  of  this 
class.  He  bids  us  be  seated,  hands  us  a  chibouk,  and  causes 
U3  to  be  supplied  with  a  few  small  cups  of  the  coffee  of  the 
seraglio.  These  scribes  sit  cross-leofged  on  the  sfround  or  on 
a  stone-bench.     In  front  of  them  lies  the  desk,  which  is 


COPTIC   SCRIBES.  63 

more  used  for  holding  documents  than  as  a  support  in  writing. 
One  of  them  now  opens  the  lid  of  his  club-shaped  ink- vessel, 
from  the  long  tubular  part  of  which  he  draws  out  his  broad - 
pointed  reed-pen.      After  trimming   his   pen  he  begins  to 


Coptic  Scribe. 

paint  thick  lines  on  the  long  narrow  strip  of  paper  that  he 
holds  up  freely  in  his  left  hand  without  any  other  support. 
The  pen  is  dipped  with  remarkable  frequency  into  the  ink- 
vessel,  which  has  an  absorbent  flap  that  gives  out  sufficient  ink 
to  impart  strength  to  the  letters,  but  not  so  much  as  to  make 
a  blot.  The  strip  of  paper  has  frequently  to  be  adjusted  for  the 
convenience  of  writing,  in  consequence  of  which  it  becomes 
a  good  deal  folded  and  crumpled. 

The  Coptic  scribe  is  a  master  of  style,  and,  while  he  has 
almost  entirely  lost  the  language  of  his  own  race,  no  genuine 
Moslem  Arab  excels  him  in  the  employment  of  the  language 
imposed  upon  his  ancestors.  The  official  style  is  somewhat 
diffuse  and  archaic.  .  There  is  no  lack  of  expressions  like 
"seeing  that,"  "inasmuch  as,"  and  of  labyrinthically  involved 
phrases.  It  forms  the  connecting-link  between  the  old 
language  of  the  Koran  and  the  dialect  of  the  people.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  in  like  manner  used  to  write,  for  example, 
in  drawing  up  treaties,  with  an  extremely  precise  and  formal 
circumstantiality. 

Another  scribe  is  employed  in  transferring  some  official 


64  UPPER  EGYPT. 

letters  to  his  large  folio,  which  he  finds  it  more  convenient 
to  rest  on  his  knees  than  on  the  writing-desk  before  him. 
A  brother  official  or  a  private  assistant,  who  is  his  pupil,  and 
who  is  likewise  a  Copt  and  of  his  own  family  (strangers,  and 
especially  Mussulmans,  are  not  admitted  into  the  caste  of 
scribes),  reads  out  to  him  in  a  drawling  sing-song  the  prosaic 
contents  of  the  letters,  with  all  the  titles,  names,  and  numbers, 
his  head  and  upper  part  of  his  body  swaying  all  the  while 
backwards  and  forwards  with  a  rhythmical  regularity.  A 
fellah  stands  before  a  group  of  idle  scribes,  wlio  are  deep 
in  some  conversation  that  has  no  connection  with  their  official 
duties.  He  timidly  requests  that  the  document  he  carries  in 
his  hand  should  be  attended  to.  He  receives  neither  a  word 
nor  a  look  in  answer,  and  becomes  more  urgent.  ''Be  off! 
We  have  no  time  just  now."  The  unfortunate  peasant  then 
bares  his  shaven  head,  and  with  a  heavy  heart  rummages  about 
in  the  folds  of  his  turban,  which  usually  serves  as  a  purse, 
opens  a  knot  with  his  teeth,  and  places  a  silver  coin  in  the 
half-open  hand  of  Master  Gerges  (George),  who  eagerly  seizes 
it.  Now  the  business  goes  on  like  clock-work.  The  paper 
is  passed  from  desk  to  desk,  from  room  to  room,  from 
one  official  to  another,  until  it  is  covered  with  seals  and 
scribblings.  The  cashier,  usually  a  Mussulman,  opens  his 
coffer  and  pays  the  amount  due  to  the  peasant.  A  small 
sum,  however,  wanders  into  the  private  chest  of  the  treasurer, 
which  the  countrymen  silently  beholds  with  rueful  astonish- 
ment. 

OFFICIALS   OF  THE  PROVINCES. 

Our  new  acquaintance  the  scribe  favours  us  with  a  variety 
of  information  regarding  the  business  of  his  office.  The 
higher  and  highest  circles  we  here  pass  over,  confining 
ourselves  to  the  provinces.  Each  province  is  subject  to  a 
governor,  with  extensive  powers,  called  a  Mudir,  who  cor- 
responds to  the  *'nomarch"  of  ancient  times.  Administra- 
tion, finance,  the  royal  domains,  the  armed  forces  of  the 
district,  and  to  a  certain  extent  also  the  judicial  proceedings, 


OFFICIALS   OF   THE   PROVINCES.  65 

are  in  his  hands ;  but  the  Damocles  sword  of  mightier  over- 
seers, and  still  more  of  informers,  hangs  over  his  head,  and 
frequent  changes  of  these  officials  are  made  with  the  view  of 
checking  abuses. 

A  provincial  court  of  justice  according  to  present  arrange- 
ments, which  have  come  into  force  at  a  comparatively 
recent  date,  is  composed  of  the  kadi,  who  merely  gives  his 
opinion  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  Koran,  and  of  some 
of  the  leading  citizens,  who  act  as  assessors.  No  trace  of 
legal  learning  is  to  be  looked  for  in  these  officials;  although 
since  the  introduction  of  the  present  organization  of  courts 
of  justice,  an  attempt  is  being  made  to  train  up  some  of  the 
natives  to  be  real  jurists,  who  are  to  give  their  decisions 
according  to  the  French  code.  The  presidency  of  the  court 
belongs  of  right  to  the  Mudir ;  but  his  whole  attention  is  taken 
up  with  the  collection  of  the  taxes  and  the  management  of 
the  vice-regal  estates.  Neither  citizen  nor  peasant  places 
any  confidence  in  the  fairness  of  the  judgments  of  these 
courts;  though  the  government  does  all  it  can  to  provide 
for  the  security  of  the  people  and  the  punishment  of  the 
offenders. 

The  large  province  (Mudirieh)  is  divided  into  several  smaller 
administrative  districts,  the  heads  of  which  are  entirely  under 
the  control  of  the  governor  of  the  province.  The  towns  are 
governed  by  their  own  prefects  of  police,  who  stand  either 
directly  under  the  Mudir  or  under  the  heads  of  the  districts. 
The  communes  likewise  have  their  own  petty  magistrates. 
These  are  chosen  from  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  several 
communes  which  they  preside  over.  Their  dignity,  accord- 
ing to  the  old  patriarchal  system,  is  mostly  hereditary,  but 
also  depends  upon  property;  for  they  are  bound  to  answer 
for  their  charge  with  their  life  and  their  whole  estate.  In 
the  towns,  where  there  are  royal  officers,  the  local  mayor,  if 
there  is  one  at  all,  has  hardly  any  voice  in  the  management 
of  aifairs.  In  the  communes  the  local  magistrates  are  the 
only  persons  with  official  authority.  Trade  and  industry 
have  their  guild-masters,  with  whom  alone  the  government 
has  any  dealings.     In  the  towns  where  trade  is  active  it 

5 


66  UPPER   EGYPT. 

is  usually  the  merchant's  sheikh  who  plays  the  part  of 
mayor. 

All  the  more  important  officers  of  government,  who  have 
any  administrative  duties,  have  the  right  of  "sealing."  They 
are  always  Turks,  or  at  least  'abdelaui,  that  is,  natives  of 
the  country  with  Turkish  blood  in  their  veins.  This  rule, 
however,  does  not  apply  to  the  more  innocent  departments  of 
government,  especially  those  for  which  some  little  scientific 
knowledge  is  requisite,  such  as  medicine,  architecture,  and 
engineering.  These  Turks  thus  form  a  privileged  aristocracy. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  higher  officials  consist  of  liberated 
white,  mostly  Circassian,  slaves  (Mamelukes).  But  the  Coptic 
scribes,  the  living  law-books  of  the  province,  the  masters  of  the 
"  uzul"  (tradition),  constitute,  although  not  possessing  the  right 
of  the  seal,  the  soul  of  official  life.  For  those  Turks  and  descen- 
dants of  Turks  and  slaves  have  passed  through  no  school  of  law, 
and  being  mostly  taken  from  the  army  or  the  fleet,  and  from 
the  higher  circles  of  society  generally,  they  have  little  incli- 
nation and  little  leisure  to  occupy  themselves  in  their  new 
position  with  deep  studies.  They  acquire  a  certain  know- 
ledge of  their  duties  by  practice,  and  get  along  as  best  they 
can,  trustinof  either  to  their  own  unlearned  instinct  or  to  the 
counsel  of  their  omniscient  scribes.  There  are  many  ad  van - 
taores  but  far  more  disadvantages  connected  with  this  state 
of  matters,  and  hence,  in  quite  recent  times,  there  has  been 
a  steady  endeavour  on  the  part  of  the  supreme  government 
to  have  a  regular  system  of  official  training  introduced.  The 
progress  of  business,  where  the  affair  takes  its  regular  course, 
and  is  not  settled  by  some  arbitrary  and,  so  to  speak,  in- 
stinctive declaration  of  Turkish  law,  is  very  slow,  and  in 
modern  as  was  the  case  in  ancient  Egypt  there  is  a  great, 
a  very  great,  expenditure  of  ink. 

Some  years  ago  an  attempt  was  even  made  to  replace  the 
Turkish  officials  from  the  Mudir  down  to  the  gendarmerie  by 
native  Egyptians.  But  the  experiment  did  not  succeed. 
The  new  officials  displayed  no  energy,  and  showed  them- 
selves accessible  to  all  sorts  of  private  influences.  The 
administration   of  justice   and   the   maintenance   of  order 


TAXES  AND  OTHER  BURDENS.  67 

suffered.  The  natives  of  the  country  were  soon  indeed  the 
loudest  in  their  complaints.  They  had  no  respect  for  one  of 
their  own  sort,  a  "Fellah;"  and  a  return  was  therefore  speedily 
made  to  the  old  system  of  Turkish  governors.  Even  the 
native  soldier  is  unable  to  secure  respect  for  his  authority 
in  the  same  degree  as  the  violent  Turk,  and  is  not  adapted 
for  his  most  important  duty,  that  of  enforcing  the  payment 
of  taxes. 

TAXES  AND  OTHER  BURDENS. 

The  Fellah  has  been  habituated  from  the  earliest  times 
to  the  bearing  of  all  sorts  of  burdens.  The  load  of  taxation 
increases  from  year  to  year.  The  old  taxes  are  retained 
and  sometimes  increased,  and  new  ones  are  devised  under 
the  most  various  shapes  and  designations.  The  nineteenth 
century  is  in  this  respect  also,  and  not  in  Egypt  only,  the 
age  of  inventions.  Years  ago  it  was  thought  that  the 
milk  must  soon  dry  up,  but  the  Fellah  is  an  inexhaustible 
milch-cow.  As  in  every  country,  there  is  in  the  first  place 
a  land  tax,  here  amounting  to  from  70  to  100  Egyptian 
piastres  on  the  acre  of  farm-land  (100  government  piastres 
are  equal  to  about  22  shillings,  and  one  piastre  accordingly 
to  something  more  than  2\d.).  This  tax  is  leviable  on  a 
larger  or  smaller  area,  according  to  the  extent  of  the  inun- 
dations of  the  river.  Further,  there  is  a  pretty  moderate 
trade  or  income  tax,  which  is  fixed  for  each  individual  by 
a  council  of  government  officers  and  natives  having  the 
necessary  experience;  for  no  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  the 
declaration  of  the  person  taxed.  The  large  number  of  palms 
in  the  Nile  valley  makes  the  pahn-tax  of  20  piastres  for 
ever}^  fruit-bearing  date-palm  a  very  productive  one.  Boats 
employed  on  the  Nile  pay  from  100  to  700  piastres.  Every- 
thing brought  to  market  is  liable  to  a  duty  of  from  2  to  9 
per  cent,  of  its  value,  in  addition  to  which  weighing  dues 
of  from  1  to  2  piastres  per  cwt.  have  to  be  paid,  whether  the 
article  be  capable  of  being  weighed  or  not.  Even  firewood 
and  cattle  are  subject  to  these  dues.     In  the  case  of  cattle 


68  UPPER  EGYPT. 

there  are  likewise  slaughter-house  dues  of  from  4  to  10 
piastres  per  head,  even  when  there  is  no  slaughter-house. 
Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  also  the  same  practice  was 
in  vogue  of  weighing  everything  in  public,  and  there  were 
special  clerks  whose  duty  was  to  mark  down  the  particulars. 
Cattle-owners  pay  3^  piastres  for  small  cattle,  and  from  10  to 
20  for  large,  among  which  asses  have  latterly  been  reckoned. 
Fisheries  are  in  some  cases  leased  out,  in  other  cases  the 
fishermen  have  to  hand  over  at  least  a  fourth  of  the  proceeds 
to  the  government.  Salt  also  is  leased  out ;  but  as  the  lessees 
found  that  it  did  not  pay,  since  the  people  found  that  they 
could  procure  salt  cheaper  from  the  desert  and  the  sea,  this 
article  is  now  distributed  among  the  inhabitants  at  a  fixed 
price  per  head.  Tobacco,  which  a  short  time  ago  was  duty 
free,  is  now  highly  taxed.  The  plaintiff"  in  an  action  has  to 
pay  a  few  piastres  before  being  allowed  to  state  his  case; 
and  20  piastres  must  be  paid  before  a  petition  in  writing  is 
received.  The  house-owner  contributes  to  the  government 
a  month's  rent  annually.  Quite  recently  the  burden  of  tax- 
ation has  been  increased  to  the  general  consternation  by  the 
imposition  of  a  poll-tax  of  45,  30,  or  15  piastres,  according 
to  the  supposed  means  of  the  tax-payer.  In  answer  to  our 
inquiries  the  scribe  estimated  (in  1868)  that  his  province, 
which  has  about  200,000  inhabitants,  yields  annually  from 
67,000  to  83,000  purses  (a  purse  is  500  piastres,  or  about 
^ye  guineas),  from  which  about  10,000  purses  have  to  be 
deducted  on  account  of  the  cost  of  collection.  The  palm-tax 
yields  7000,  the  land-tax  40,000  to  50,000,  the  trade  and 
income  tax  4000,  the  fisheries'  tax  250,  the  market-tax  500, 
and  the  tax  on  the  Nile  boats  12,000  purses.  The  figures 
may  now  indeed  be  very  different,  since,  as  already  mentioned, 
many  new  taxes  have  been  imposed  since  that  date,  while 
on  the  other  hand  the  steadily  increasing  stagnation  of  trade 
may  have  had  the  effect  of  bringing  about  a  reduction  in  the 
yield  of  each  tax. 

Still  more  oppressive  than  the  number  and  amount  of  the 
taxes,  is  the  irregular  manner  in  which  they  are  levied.  As  a 
rule  indeed  they  are  collected  gradually,  and  every  month  a 


TAXES   AND   OTHER  BURDENS.  69 

steamer  appears  to  convey  the  sums  raised,  less  the  amount 
required  to  defray  the  provincial  expenditure,  to  the  central 
treasury;  but  this  treasury  is  subject  to  frequent  and  sudden 
ebbs,  and  in  such  cases  has  to  be  replenished  in  a  few  days. 
The  governors  of  the  provinces  then  receive  the  command  to 
pay  into  the  treasury  within  so  many  days  a  certain  and  often 
a  pretty  large  sum  of  money;  and  if  any  of  the  governors  or 
mudirs  is  thought  to  be  of  too  mild  a  temper  to  take  steps  of 
the  necessary  severity  a  successor  is  often  sent  along  with  the 
order  for  the  special  purpose  of  carrying  it  into  force.  This 
new  governor  then  makes  a  tour  through  the  province 
with  his  scribes  and  other  officers,  and  with  the  utmost 
politeness  ''requests"  the  richer  citizens  to  make  advances, 
which  they  are  obliged  to  do  even  if  they  should  have  to 
borrow  the  money  at  high  interest  from  Greek  usurers,  while 
the  poorer  tax-payers  are  compelled  to  pay  at  once  the  sums 
due  for  the  whole  year;  and  whoever  is  in  arrears,  and  is  still 
not  ready  to  pay,  is  treated  to  the  lash.  This  instrument, 
although  abolished  by  law,  is  on  such  occasions  rigorously 
wielded  till  late  in  the  night.  The  grain  that  the  farmer  is  now 
obliged  to  sell  to  pay  his  taxes  in  these  circumstances  sinks 
for  some  days  considerably  in  price,  greatly  to  the  advantage 
of  the  corn-buyers.  The  truth  is  that  even  in  ordinary  times 
the  balance  of  state  revenue  and  expenditure  could  not  be 
maintained  without  the  aid  of  the  kurhdg  or  scourge  of  hippo- 
potamus hide.  The  Fellah  (and  it  was  the  same  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  at  least  in  later  times)  will  rather  be  beaten 
till  the  blood  flows  than  voluntarily  pay  the  detested  taxes  to 
the  government;  and  he  boasts  of  this  as  an  act  of  heroism. 
Not  unfrequently,  after  getting  all  the  flesh  of  his  body  made 
tender  by  repeated  scourging,  he  slowly  drops  the  money  de- 
manded of  him  out  of  his  mouth,  where  he  had  concealed  it.  An 
extortionate  system  of  taxation  has  been  the  order  of  the  day 
in  the  land  of  the  Nile  from  the  earliest  times;  but  wliile 
formerly  the  sums  extorted  only  went  to  benefit  the  rulers, 
now  it  must  be  confessed  a  large  share  of  them  is  expended 
for  the  good  of  the  country.  The  peasant,  to  be  sure,  is 
unable  to  see  of  what  use  the  schools  are,  and  scarcely  appre- 


70  UPPER  EGYPT. 

ciates  the  value  of  the  new  canals,  bridges,  and  railways. 
His  children  and  children's  children  will  get  the  benefit  of 
them;  he  knows  only  the  suffering  that  he  has  to  undergo  to 
meet  the  demands  of  the  government. 

Forced  labour,  people  in  Egypt  say,  is  quite  as  indis- 
pensable as  the  kurbag.  It  also  is  formally  abolished,  but 
is  nevertheless  maintained  even  more  actively  than  ever. 
To  be  sure  the  services  exacted  by  the  government  ought  by 
law  to  be  paid  for  by  the  government  officials.  For  carrying 
goods  through  the  desert,  for  example,  the  camel-driver  receives 
the  medium  pay  current  at  the  time.  But  the  country  people, 
who  are  from  time  to  time  levied  en  masse  and  forced  to  labour 
on  public  works,  assert  that  they  receive  either  none  at  all  or 
very  little  of  the  pay  due  them,  which  passes  through  the 
hands  of  the  government  officers  and  the  village  mayors. 
Without  resorting  to  compulsion,  or  paying  excessively  high 
wages,  the  government  could  not  get  labourers  for  public 
works,  for  the  peasant  and  the  labourer  carefully  avoid  as 
much  as  tliey  can  all  connection  with  the  government.  Those 
who  can  read  and  write  are  declared  to  be  exempt  from 
liability  to  forced  labour,  at  least  in  their  own  persons. 

The  officials  also  have  to  bear  a  large  share  of  the  burdens 
of  the  state.  The  pay  of  the  lower  grades  is  in  itself  very 
small,  and  is  calculated  according  to  the  wants  of  a  time 
tliat  is  now  past.  It  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  great 
increase  in  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life  since  the  introduction 
of  the  cotton  cultivation,  an  increase  so  great  that  Egypt  is 
now  one  of  the  dearest  countries  in  the  earth  to  live  in. 
The  happy  times  of  Mohammed  Ali,  when  one  could  get  a 
whole  handful  of  eggs  and  fowls  for  a  few  paras,  are  gone.  To 
take  a  few  examples  of  the  rates  of  official  pay,  the  keeper 
of  a  prison  receives  75  piastres  (that  is,  about  16s.  Qd.) 
a  montn,  an  hospital  attendant  100  piastres,  an  ordinary 
scribe  200  to  400  piastres,  an  officer  of  the  rank  of  a  lieu- 
tenant, for  example  an  ordinary  doctor,  an  architect,  an 
assistant,  500  piastres  (a  purse),  an  officer  of  the  rank  of  a 
captain  {yus  bdscha)  a  purse  and  a  half,  one  of  the  rank  of 
a  chief  captain  (sakolaghdsi)  three  purses,  a  lieutenant-colonel 


OFFICIAL   PROCEDUliE.  71 

(Jcaimakdm)  five  purses.  Fi'om  this  grade  upwards  salaries 
rapidly  increase.  An  officer  of  the  rank  of  a  bey  or  colonel, 
for  example  the  mudir,  has  from  8  to  10  purses,  a  pasha 
15  to  20  purses  monthly.  While  in  other  countries  schemes 
were  devised  for  increasing  official  salaries  as  the  prices 
of  necessaries  became  higher,  in  this  country  a  resolution 
was  suddenly  come  to  a  few  years  ago  to  reduce  salaries 
by  a  fifth,  a  reduction  still  in  force,  so  that  a  government 
servant  who  formerly  received  1500  piastres  now  receives 
only  1200.  This  measure,  however,  does  not  apply  to  the 
lower  grades  of  government  servants  receiving  a  salary  of 
500  piastres  or  less.  The  government  officers  are  not  even 
exempt  from  the  poll-tax  recently  imposed.  A  day's  salar}^ 
is  regularly  deducted  from  their  monthly  pay.  The  copper- 
tax,  which  was  levied  for  a  considerable  time,  and  which 
consisted  in  paying  a  tenth  of  their  salary  in  almost  worthless 
copper  piastres,  is  now  at  last  abolished. 

From  time  to  time  an  attempt  is  also  made  to  reduce  the 
number  of  the  officials,  especially  the  inferior  ones;  and  when 
this  is  done  those  whose  services  the  government  thinks  it 
can  dispense  with  are  simply  discharged  with  nothing  more 
than  the  hope  of  the  next  permanent  appointment  that  may 
become  vacant.  Only  the  privileged  Turks  often  receive 
in  such  cases  compensation  in  the  form  of  an  allotment  of 
lands.  But  these  measures  are  in  reality  more  impolitic  than 
cruel;  for,  as  a  general  rule,  the  official  during  his  term  of 
office  lays  past  his  salary  to  form  a  permanent  capital,  de- 
fraying his  current  expenses  "from  without." 

OFFICIAL  PROCEDURE. 

The  head  of  the  province  is  generally  absent  on  a  tour  of 
inspection  through  his  long  district,  or  visiting  the  royal 
sugar-refineries  and  domains,  and  his  deputy,  the  "wekil," 
despatches  the  ordinary  business.  We  get  ourselves  intro- 
duced to  him  through  a  suitable  medium.  He  receives  us 
in  a  manner  at  once  courtly  and  proud.  His  strongly 
marked  features  and  the  clear  colour  of  his  skin   betray 


72  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  Turk;  a  certain  want  of  polish  in  his  behaviour  and  the 
fluency  of  his  Arabic  reveal  a  large  admixture  of  native 
Egyptian  blood.  He  is  sitting  in  his  official  room  or  divan 
on  the  richly  cushioned  couch  or  sofa  (divan  in  the  narrower 
sense).  He  sips  coffee,  which  is  included  in  the  charges  of 
the  court,  takes  a  cigarette  from  his  box,  or  has  the  gilded 
chibouk  brought  to  him.  Some  privileged  persons,  among 
them  several  priests,  have  seated  themselves  on  the  divan  at 
some  distance  from  him;  less  highly  honoured  persons  sit 
cross-legged  on  the  carpets  that  are  laid  on  the  floor  next 
the  walls.  No  furniture  enlivens  the  clean  and  well-kept 
hall.  The  windows  are  hung  with  costly  curtains  adorned 
with  elegant  tassels.  On  ledges  all  round  the  hall  lie  a  few 
books,  among  which  there  is  a  book  of  laws  of  the  time  of 
the  great  Mohammed  Ali,  which  perhaps  has  never  been 
opened,  and  also  without  fail  a  copy  of  the  Koran. 

The  chief  of  the  scribes,  the  Bashkatib,  Master  Hanna 
(John)  enters,  and  brings  under  his  arm  a  great  heap  of 
official  documents  just  drawn  up.  With  a  frowning  look 
the  man  of  authority  snatches  the  papers  out  of  the  hand  of 
the  accomplished  scribe  who  stands  before  him  with  his  head 
hanging  down.  He  makes  as  if  he  were  reading  and  could 
read  the  writing,  which  swims  before  his  eyes,  and  dipping  the 
tip  of  his  finger  in  the  ink- vessel  which  the  chief  scribe  holds 
up  before  him  he  applies  it  to  the  surface  of  the  silver  seal  on 
which  his  name  is  engraved,  and  stamps  therewith  all  the 
documents  in  succession.  Twenty  documents  are  despatched 
in  this  way  before  the  learned  scribe  could  have  read  out 
live  lines.  He  throws  down  one  after  the  other  before  the 
author,  who  patiently  picks  them  up,  and  retires  with  a 
profound  and  silent  obeisance.  In  this  way  is  shown  before 
the  public  the  mighty  difference  that  there  is  between  the 
exalted  Turk  and  the  Christian  scribe.  In  private,  however, 
there  is  a  perfect  understanding  between  the  two. 

There  is  always  a  great  bustle  in  the  court  of  the  Mudirieh, 
especially  in  the  morning  hours.  Here  the  parties  to  a  suit 
sit  squatting  on  the  ground  awaiting  the  decision  of  the  court. 
There  a  criminal  is  handed  up  in  fetters,  and  is  cast  into  the 


OFFICIAL  PROCEDURE.  73 

dark  dungeon.  At  another  spot  some  who  have  to  receive 
paynients  wait  for  days  till  the  scribes  find  the  necessary 
leisure  for  the  purpose.  In  the  same  court  deeds  of  surrender 
and  leases  are  prepared ;  and  here  also  the  mudir  or  wekil 
keeps  a  supply  of  camels. 

Gradually  the  court  becomes  more  and  more  crowded  with 
brown-skinned  and  brown-mantled  country  people.  The 
village  mayors  and  village  patriarchs  (sheikhs)  are  summoned 
into  the  divan.  With  a  deep  obeisance  they  go  through  the 
usual  form  of  lifting  dust  from  the  smooth  marble  floor  and 
pressing  it  to  their  lips  as  a  mark  of  respect.  In  these  coun- 
tries, however,  the  Mussulman  never,  except  in  extreme  cases, 
prostrates  himself  before  his  ruler.  That  sign  of  reverence 
is  reserved  for  the  Almighty.  A  decree  is  read,  and  the 
people  are  required  to  signify  their  assent  to  it,  and  bind  them- 
selves to  obey  it.  "  Right  willingly,"  answer  the  honourable 
village  mayors  with  one  voice,  "as  your  excellency  commands; 
we  are  thy  slaves  and  the  slaves  of  our  sovereign;  nothing  but 
good  comes  from  thee;  thy  opinion  is  our  opinion."  "Then 
seal  the  document,"  says  the  governor;  and  the  heads  of  the 
communes,  one  after  the  other,  give  their  brass  seal  to  the 
scribe,  who  smears  it  with  ink,  and  fills  the  sheet  with  their 
important  names.  When  the  sheikh  has  sealed,  the  villager 
does  so  likewise,  although  he  has  only  a  faint  glimmering  of 
what  it  is  that  he  has  pledged  himself  to.  In  the  country, 
where  very  few  can  write,  the  seal  takes  the  place  of  a  signa- 
ture. To  lend  a  person  a  seal  is  a  mark  of  the  highest  confidence. 
When  an  official  has  lost  his  seal  and  has  to  provide  himself 
with  another,  the  fact  is  made  known  by  public  notices.  Official 
seals,  properly  so  called,  are  not  in  use  except  for  stamped  paper, 
and  where  doors  have  to  be  sealed  up  on  behalf  of  the  govern- 
ment. For  example,  on  the  occasion  of  a  death  a  large  official 
seal  made  of  clay  and  chopped  straw  is  placed  on  the  door  of 
the  house  where  the  deceased  person  lived,  and  similar  seals 
are  placed  on  the  doors  of  the  government  magazines  every 
evening,  as  was  customary  also  among  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

We  are  now  about  to  quit  the  buildings  in  which  the  busi- 
ness of  the  state  is  carried  on,  but  remain  a  little  longer  to 


74  UPPER  EGYPT. 

cast  a  glance  at  the  ecclesiastical  court,  in  which  the  hadi,  the 
representative  of  the  clergy,  assisted  by  advisers  well  versed 
in  the  Mohammedan  Scriptures  (muftis  or  ulema),  dissolves 
ill-made  marriages,  arranges  the  inheritance  of  deceased 
persons,  administers  oaths,  and  now  and  then  in  difficult 
cases  gives  the  benefit  of  his  opinion  to  the  secular  court. 
On  the  whole,  however,  all  that  he  has  saved  from  the  ruins 
of  his  former  splendour  is  a  certain  moral  influence  among 
his  religious  brethren,  an  influence  that  is  daily  declining. 
His  role  is  in  fact  now  almost  confined  to  that  of  a  notary, 
"Par  ordre  du  moufti"  is  a  phrase  that  has  become  of  no 
effect,  unless  by  mufti  a  pasha  is  understood. 

By  and  by  we  see  the  government  post  darting  past  us,  in 
the  form  of  an  express  runner,  with  a  little  bell  at  his  foot  or 
on  his  stick,  and  a  knapsack,  which  he  carries  to  the  next  post- 
station,  where  he  is  relieved  of  it  by  another  runner.  Many  a 
piece  of  intelligence  is  brought  by  these  nimble-footed  men, 
before  the  snaiFs  post  of  the  electric  telegraph  has  worked  its 
way  through  the  intermediate  stationsfilled  witha  set  of  young 
officials  whose  chief  occupation  is  to  dream  and  loiter  away 
their  time.  The  postal  system  is  now  organized  on  a  Euro- 
pean plan  even  in  Upper  Egypt.  Where  there  are  as  yet  no 
railways  the  functionaries  are  Arabs.  Scrupulous  punctualitj^ 
has  never  been  the  leading  virtue  of  the  natives,  and  an 
Arab  post-office  of  the  kind  we  are  now  speaking  of  is  not 
exactly  a  model  institution.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
much  improvement,  although  even  orders  and  decorations  are 
occasionally  lost.  Ordinary  people  make  but  little  use  of  the 
government  postal  service.  They  prefer  to  trust  their  letters, 
which  are  written  on  ribbon-shaped  strips  of  paper  and  then 
rolled  up,  to  some  chance  visitor  to  the  place  for  which  they 
are  destined.  In  this  way  their  transmission  costs  nothing. 
There  is  never  any  hurry,  and  the  people  are  afraid  the 
government  might  learn  their  secrets.  On  this  account  the 
Egyptian  post-office  always  works  at  a  loss. 

A  company  of  regular  troops  marches  out  at  the  gate  of 
the  seraglio,  preceded  by  a  band  of  fifers.  The  light,  slim- 
built  beardless  youths,  among  whom  many  negro  heads  with 


THE   COUNTRY  JUDGE.  75 

ivory  teeth  are  conspicuous,  are  dressed  in  loose  trousers, 
like  those  worn  by  the  Zouaves,  fastened  high  on  the  body, 
a  short  military  coat  made  of  ticking,  and  a  red  cap  vrith  a 
tassel  to  it,  a  uniform  which  suits  them  admirably.  A 
squadron  of  irregular  Turkish  cavalry  (Bashi  Bazouks),  ride 
into  their  barracks,  headed  by  their  aristocratic  commander 
seated  on  the  gold-fringed  housing  of  his  high-bred  horse. 
Their  wild  countenances,  their  motley  self-chosen  dresses,  their 
arms,  bearing,  and  character — everything  about  them  in  short, 
betrays  almost  unbridled  license.  Their  commander  is  their 
patriarch.  He  has  himself  raised  them,  and  has  to  maintain 
them  out  of  the  funds  placed  at  his  disposal  for  the  purpose. 
They  lead  a  restless,  wandering  life. 

THE  COUNTRY  JUDGE. 

Less  important  actions  and  cases  arising  out  of  trifling 
disorders  in  the  town  come  before  the  police  or  town  prefect's 
court,  which  lies  in  a  different  part  of  the  town  from  that  of 
the  mudir.  Nevertheless  its  proceedings  are  always  influenced 
and  restrained  by  the  authority  of  this  powerful  functionary, 
and  Turkish  justice  is  not  here  to  be  seen  in  its  peculiar  and 
original  features  as  it  is  in  a  small  country  town  where  the 
local  judge  is  absolute.  We  will  therefore  travel  in  spirit 
for  a  few  hours  to  the  divan  of  such  a  local  judge  or  hakim. 
His  portrait  essentially  resembles  that  which  we  have  given 
of  the  wekil  of  the  mudir.  In  his  court  we  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  witnessing  the  following  scenes. 

A  loud  wrangling  is  heard  on  the  stairs.  Two  lads,  with 
rolling  eyes,  and  looking  as  if  they  would  like  to  transfix 
each  other,  are  dragged  in  by  the  police.  One  of  them  shows 
his  torn  shirt  and  bloody  nose. 

"What  do  you  want,  you  fellows?''  cries  the  tyrant  on  the 
divan. 

The  accuser  all  at  once  empties  his  overcharged  heart  before 
the  assembled  divan  or  j  udicial  assembly.  Nobody  understands 
him.  The  accused  interrupts  him  long  before  he  has  finished 
his  little  speech.     A  storm  of  abuse  breaks  out  between  the 


76  UPPER   EGYPT. 

I 

disputing  parties.  The  police  and  soldiers  do  their  best  to 
quiet  them  by  advice  as  well  as  by  blows;  the  judge  com- 
mands, nobody  hears;  the  air  is  rent  with  intermingled 
Arabic  and  Turkish  phrases.  Witnesses  are  called,  and  these 
make  the  chaos  complete.  At  last  quietness  is  obtained.  The 
judge  asks  the  accused: 

"Did  you  strike  anyone?" 

"No,  I  did  nothing.     Nothing  has  happened  at  all.'' 

"And  that  nose?"  asks  the  judge. 

"God  knows  all,"  replies  the  accused. 

"Bring  the  cord;  bind  him,  the  liar,  the  pimp!" 

"Thus  was  it  fore-ordained  for  me  by  Fate;  I  submit." 

As  a  lamb  that  is  led  to  the  slaughter,  the  poor  sinner  lays 
himself  flat  on  his  face  on  the  floor  of  the  court.  The  police  tie 
his  legs  with  an  apparatus  which  they  have  had  in  readiness. 
Two  pieces  of  wood  keep  the  ankles  together,  and  two  exe- 
cutioners armed  with  scourges  of  hippopotamus  hide  deal 
out  terrible  strokes  on  the  uplifted  soles  of  the  prisoner's 
feet.  An  anxious  stillness  prevails  in  the  room,  interrupted 
by  the  regular  smack  of  the  whips,  and  by  the  tortured  man's 
supplications,  which  become  always  more  urgent  and  penitent. 
He  appeals  to  the  grace  of  the  prophet,  then  to  that  of  some 
saint,  next  to  the  heart  of  the  judge's  little  son  and  the  sweet 
mildness  of  his  wife  (Jaardak,  ya  sitt  el  hey).  But  there 
is  no  mercy,  until  at  last  a  word  from  one  of  those  present 
makes  the  rigorous  judge  aware  that  a  severe  enough  punish- 
ment has  been  inflicted.  The  poor  wretch  is  carried  away 
like  a  corpse. 

"The  other  now;  that  brawler,  that  dog!" 

The  accuser  meets  with  the  same  fate  at  the  hands  of 
justice  as  the  accused,  but  being  of  a  stronger  constitu- 
tion shrinks  away  unassisted,  resolved  never  again  to  go  to 
law. 

Not  only  the  hippopotamus-hide  scourge,  but  corporal 
punishment  generally,  has  been  legally  abolished  for  a 
considerable  time,  though  only  upon  paper.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  likewise  resorted  freely  to  beating  as  the  most 
effective  means  of  carrying  out  the  ends  of  justice.    To  judge 


THE  COUNTRY  JUDGE.  77 

from  the  monuments  they  made  use  of  a  rod  for  the  purpose, 
applying  it  to  the  hips,  not  to  the  soles  of  the  feet.  Even 
women  were  not  spared  the  bastinado,  but  in  their  case 
the  strokes  were  laid  on  the  back,  and  they  received  them 
sitting.  The  practice  of  inflicting  blows  on  the  soles  of  the 
feet  was  probably  brought  by  the  Turks  from  Asia;  and  it 
is  not  so  cruel  as  it  looks;  for  the  sole  of  the  foot  of  a  man 
belonging  to  the  lower  classes  is  almost  as  hard  and  thick  as 
the  sole  of  a  shoe.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  a 
man  occasionally  dies  while  undergoing  this  punishment. 

A  case  such  as  that  above  described,  in  which  both  accuser 
and  accused  are  punished,  does  not  indeed  form  the  rule  (for 
if  it  did  no  one  would  ever  be  an  accuser);  yet  it  is  by  no 
means  rare.  The  very  common  practice  of  interceding  for 
some  offender  with  the  words,  m«,  alesh  (do  nothing), 
inattention  to  which  is  taken  by  the  interceders  as  a  personal 
insult,  is  one  of  the  weak  sides  of  justice,  and  often  makes 
every  law  illusory. 

Another  accuser  appears,  his  case  being  that  some  women 
of  the  neighbourhood  have  ill-treated  his  wife.  The  accused, 
namely,  these  women's  husbands,  who,  while  the  female  war 
had  been  raging,  were  quietly  and  peacefully  attending  to 
their  work  in  the  town  or  the  fields,  now  warmly  take  the 
part  of  their  wives,  who  remain  at  home  anxiously  awaiting 
the  decision  of  the  judge.  For  only  in  exceptionally  grave 
cases  are  women  required  to  appear  personally  in  court.  A 
hot  wordy  warfare  arises  between  the  accuser  and  the 
accused  as  champions  of  their  respective  wives,  but  is 
speedily  and  energetically  stopped  by  the  judge,  who  orders 
the  husbands  of  the  offenders,  or  it  may  be,  as  in  the  last 
case,  both  accusers  and  accused,  to  receive  one  after  the  other 
a  sufficient  number  of  strokes  on  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and 
then  dismisses  them  with  the  warning  that  for  the  future 
they  keep  their  wives  better  in  check.  The  private  conse- 
quences of  this  procedure  in  the  apartments  of  the  harem 
may  be  left  to  the  reader's  imagination. 

The  parties  that  have  thus  far  been  dealt  with  are  com- 
mon peasants,  who  are  only  to  be  kept  in  order  by  the  cudgel. 


78  UPPEK   EGYPT. 

But  now  persons  of  position  appear.  The  grown-up  son  of 
one  of  the  leading  merchants,  and  at  the  same  time  of  a 
sherif  or  descendant  of  the  prophet,  has  knocked  out  with 
his  fist  some  of  the  teeth  of  a  highly  respected  citizen  of  the 
town,  who  appears  as  accuser.  The  man  in  power  listens  to 
the  important  case  witli  severe  gravity.  He  scratches  him- 
self behind  the  ears,  strokes  his  whiskers  and  beard,  invests 
his  figure  in  impenetrable  clouds  of  tobacco-smoke,  and  calls 
for  his  scribe.  What's  to  be  done?  According  to  law  or 
tradition  {uzvbl)  a  record  of  the  case  must  be  taken.  Dozens 
of  messengers  and  police-officers  traverse  the  town  in  all 
directions.  The  court  is  gradually  filled  with  the  venerable 
and  patriarchal  forms  of  the  muftis,  the  oldest  of  the  citizens, 
the  leading  traders,  the  native  or  foreign  representatives  of 
other  powers  or  consular  agents,  the  dignitaries  of  the  bureau- 
cracy, the  commanders  of  the  armed  forces.  Silently  the 
exalted  assembly  hears  the  accusation.  The  accused  denies 
the  charge,  or  stammers  out  a  few  words  in  defence. 
(Advocates  there  are  none.)  The  father  of  the  youth  repre- 
sents to  his  petulant  son  the  whole  extent  of  his  manifest 
guilt,  and  taking  hold  of  his  own  silvered  beard  asks  him 
how  he  could  bring  such  sorrow  upon  his  old  father.  The 
son  remains  dutifully  silent,  and  looks  shamefaced  upon  the 
ground.  Nevertheless,  the  father  attempts  the  defence  of 
his  son  with  all  the  animation  and  dexterity  he  is  capable 
of.  The  party  of  the  accused  make  some  remarks.  The 
persons  present  sometimes  give  tokens  of  their  approval  of 
what  the  speakers  say.  The  record  becomes  rather  lengthy. 
A  physician  is  called  and  gives  his  opinion  on  so  serious  a 
case. 

"To  prison  with  the  offender!"  is  the  decision  of  the  judge, 
which  resounds  through  the  hall. 

*'My  son  sent  to  prison,  the  son  of  a  sherif?  I  will  become 
surety  for  my  son." 

An  anxious  silence  follows.  The  judge  hesitates.  Civil 
justice  demands  the  punishment  of  the  wrong-doer  without 
respect  of  persons.  Personal  and  religious  considerations 
and  patriarchal  laws  do  not  allow  of  any  disrespect  to  an 


THE  COUNTRY  JUDGE.  79 

honourable  descendant  of  the  Prophet.  A  pause  occurs. 
Those  present  sip  a  little  coffee  out  of  small  cups,  and 
make  a  few  observations  for  the  general  good  about  the 
weather  and  the  time  of  day.  Some  go  out  and  in,  and 
occasionally  the  clink  of  coins  is  heard.  The  kadi,  the 
ecclesiastical  judge,  who  in  truth  has  no  say  in  the  matter, 
now  puts  in  his  word: 

"Firstof  allafatiha!" 

All  those  present  thereupon,  with  uplifted  hands,  solemnly 
utter  the  prayer  of  prayers,  ending  with  an  earnest  Amen. 
Then  the  kadi  goes  on  to  say: 

''Serious  things  have  taken  place;  but  God  is  the  all- 
pardoning,  the  all-merciful.  The  prosecution  of  the  action 
would  lead  to  incalculable  consequences.  Accusers  and 
accused  will  become  reconciled;  I  pledge  myself  to  that. 
For  your  part,  your  grace,  desist  now;   God  will   reward 

you." 

But  the  civil  judge  will  not  yet  yield,  and  hurls  reproaches 
and  accusations  against  the  unapproachable  sherif  He,  for 
his  part,  throws  in  a  number  of  taunting  observations.  Little 
is  wanting  to  make  the  parties  begin  fighting  again.  The 
kadi  now  stands  up  with  all  the  dignity  of  his  person  and 
office  and  requests  the  civil  judge  for  his  sake  at  least  to 
grant  pardon  to  the  offender.  To  this  solicitation  the  pious 
judge,  the  strength  of  whose  moral  resistance  has  already 
been  broken  at  anyrate,  at  length  yields.  The  parties,  wlio 
are  already  prepared  for  this,  become  reconciled.  The  record 
of  the  case,  along  with  the  opinion  of  the  physician,  is 
solemnly  torn  in  pieces,  and  the  scene  closes  with  a  round 
of  embraces,  a  cup  of  sweet  coffee  specially  prepared  and 
flavoured  with  cloves,  and  a  fatiha. 

Many  civil  judges,  it  is  true,  use  much  less  ceremony  with 
a  sherif  or  a  kadi,  and  decide  strictly  without  respect  of 
persons;  but  with  all  their  uprightness  these  are  precisely 
the  judges  who  are  most  unpopular.  To  show  partiality 
and  indulgence  in  particular  cases  is  a  practice  which  has 
passed  into  the  flesh  and  blood  of  the  people  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  inexorably  just  judge  passes  for  a  tyrant,  a 


80  UPPER  EGYPT. 

"bad  man,"  while  the  epithet  of  "good"  (ragel  theyih)  is 
9,pplied  to  one  of  more  yielding  nature,  even  when  his 
indulgence  may  be  purchased  with  gold.  Among  the  ancient 
Egyptians  rectitude  and  deep  seriousness  characterized  the 
administration  of  justice,  and  that  was  the  firmest  support 
of  their  long-lived  empire. 

THE  HAKlM  PASHA. 

We  now  pay  a  visit  to  the  Hakim  pasha,  or,  if  you  like, 
the  chief  official  doctor,  who  has  to  look  after  the  physical 
well-being  of  the  province.  We  find  him  in  the  hospital  in 
the  midst  of  his  medical  duties  with  his  sleeves  turned  up 
and  wearing  an  apron.  By  his  dress  he  seems  a  Turkish 
effendi,  but  otherwise  he  is  body  and  soul  a  true  son  of 
Egypt.  The  year  or  two's  training  he  has  had  under  Euro- 
pean teachers,  or  even  perhaps  in  some  famous  alma  mater 
of  Europe,  has  caused  many  a  seed  of  medical  science  to 
germinate  greatly  to  the  benefit  of  the  suffering  in  his  father- 
land, but  has  not  shaken  the  foundation  of  the  character  he 
has  inherited  from  his  ancestors  or  influenced  his  most  deeply 
rooted  ideas.  The  endeavours  of  the  government  of  Mohammed 
Ali  and  of  the  present  government  to  fit  the  youth  for  their 
callings  by  the  institution  of  a  superior  class  of  schools  cannot 
be  too  highly  appreciated.  But  the  way  in  which  these  efforts 
are  carried  out  must  be  pronounced  a  failure,  for  all  that  these 
schools  supply  is  a  slight  professional  training.  The  minds  of 
the  learners  are  not  prepared  by  a  course  of  study  in  literature 
and  philosophy,  and  hence  they  do  not  possess  any  genuine 
cultivation  or  tendency  towards  independent  thinking.  After 
being  received  by  the  doctor  with  the  most  engaging  affability 
we  accompany  him  through  the  airy  rooms,  where  the  patients, 
almost  exclusively  soldiers  and  prisoners,  lie  on  their  tolerably 
clean  and  tidy  iron  beds.  A  numerous  body  of  attendants, 
all  native  soldiers  who  have  served  their  time,  wearing  white 
or  blue  blouses,  such  as  are  worn  by  the  people  generally, 
follow  his  steps.  The  chief  attendant,  with  a  club-shaped 
ink-vessel  like  that  already  spoken  of  under  his  arm,  stands 


THE   HAKlM   PASHA.  81 

ready  to  commit  to  writing  the  instructions  of  the  physician 
as  soon  as  they  are  uttered,  holding  his  reed-pen  always  wet 
with  ink  above  the  prescription  paper,  and  making  movements 
with  his  hand  as  if  he  were  writing.  Another  attendant 
carries  the  metal  boxes  with  the  ointments  used  in  bandamng, 
and  a  casket  containing  the  plasters,  lint,  spatulas,  and  scissors. 
The  junior  surgeon  and  the  apothecary  catch  up  every  word 
and  observe  every  gesture  of  their  chief.  The  Arab  iEscu- 
lapius  goes  round  the  beds  of  his  charges,  now  all  gravity 
and  solemnity,  now  overflowing  with  humour,  and  always 
spicing  his  remarks  with  a  plentiful  dose  of  sparkling  exple- 
tives (in  which,  however,  there  is  not,  as  among  Europeans, 
any  profane  mention  of  sacred  things).  The  knife  is  swiftly 
passed  through  bleeding  human  flesh,  and  no  such  costly 
anaesthetic  as  chloroform  is  employed  to  relieve  the  pain. 
Inflammatory  swellings  are  never  soothed  by  the  application 
of  leeches,  but  streams  of  venous  blood  save  the  life  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  south.  The  denunciations  of  certain  path- 
ologists against  the  medicina  crudelis  find  no  echo  on  the 
hot  soil  of  Africa. 

While  the  doctor  retires  to  his  private  room  to  write  out 
for  some  court  of  justice  the  opinion  that  he  is  officially 
required  to  give  on  some  case,  we  accompany  the  apothecary 
into  a  small  room,  which  contains  the  principal  collection  of 
drugs  and  medicines  in  the  province,  whence  all  the  state- 
appointed  physicians,  male  as  well  as  female,  in  the  sub- 
districts  receive  their  supplies.  For  as  male  physicians 
are  not  readily  permitted  to  attend  on  women  and  children, 
there  are  some  women  who  pass  through  a  course  of 
medicine  and  midwifery  (though  not  a  very  extensive  one) 
at  the  medical  school  at  Cairo,  and  are  then  distributed 
through  the  provinces  to  treat  those  whom  men  are  not 
allowed  to  visit.  In  this  sort  of  emancipation,  therefore, 
Egypt  is  already  in  advance  of  most  western  countries. 
By  these  arrangements  those  who  are  afflicted  with  diseases 
have  always  medical  aid  within  their  reach,  and  that  free 
of  cost.  Even  medicines  are  supplied  by  the  government 
gratis,  the  doctors  merely  having  to  keep  a  register  of  what 

6 


82  UPPER  EGYPT. 

they  give  out.^  Truly  a  humane  idea  worthy  of  "the  great 
pasha  "2  who  conceived  it.  Yet  the  peasant  flies  with 
horror  from  the  offered  hand  and  throws  himself  into  the 
arms  of  the  amulet  writers,  dealers  in  charms,  soothsayers, 
saints,  fumigators,  spice-mongers,  and  stroking-women.  The 
fatalist  does  nothing  but  quietly  awaits  the  result.  Those 
who  have  some  glimmering  of  intelligence  do  indeed  go 
to  the  doctor,  but  ask  from  him  by  name  the  medicine  they 
want,  for  they  know  all  about  medicine  themselves.  They 
are  already  acquainted,  for  example,  with  carbonate  of  soda 
and  yoduT  el  potassa  (iodide  of  potassium).  And  when  they 
do  leave  it  to  the  doctor  to  prescribe  they  will  never  take 
any  medicine  unless  they  are  first  satisfied  as  to  the  names 
and  proportionate  weights  of  the  ingredients  of  which  the 
mixture  is  composed,  and  so  suspicious  are  they  that  they 
often  insist  upon  the  doctor  himself  trying  it  first.  A  patient 
of  this  description  is  standing  at  this  very  moment  at  the 
apothecary's  counter.  He  stirs  the  witches'  broth  round 
and  round,  murmuring  the  while  a  hisrriillah  er-rahmdn  er- 
raMm  ("in  the  name  of  God"),  and  at  last  with  a  look  of 
valiant  resolution  empties  it  at  a  single  draught  down  his 
throat.  The  native  prefers,  however,  to  get  the  separate 
ingredients  of  a  mixture  from  the  apothecary  and  mix  them 
for  himself  at  home.  Purgatives  are  very  commonly  used 
among  the  people,  emetics  and  clysters  very  little.  In  their 
own  native  trained  doctors  they  have  very  little  confidence. 
But  a  Frank  travelling  through  the  country,  whether  he  be 
a  medical  man  or  not,  is  always  a  wonder-worker  in  the 
medical  art,  and  is  asked  to  cure  the  blind,  lame,  impotent, 
and  all  sorts  of  incurable — though  seldom  curable — persons. 
In  pathology  those  of  the  common  people  who  interest  them- 
selves at  all  in  medicine  render  homage,  like  the  old  Arab 
physicians,  to  vague  theories  such  as  those  of  Galen.  Thus 
peas  are  said  to  be  "hot,"  coflfee  dries  up  the  brain,  a  pain 
proceeds  either  from  the  blood  or  from  cold  (in  which  latter 
case  it  is  to  be  quite  differently  treated),  &c. 

^  This  last  provision  has,  however,  recently  been  abolished. 
^  So  Mohammed  Ali  is  generally  called. 


A   COPTIC  MEAL   DURING   A   FAST.  83 

The  fact  that  these  humane  efforts  of  civilization  in  medi- 
cine do  not  succeed  is  not  entirely  the  fault  of  the  dark 
superstition  in  which  the  people  are  buried.  The  central 
repository  of  drugs,  and  still  more  the  supplies  that  are  drawn 
therefrom  by  the  district  physicians,  are  very  deficient  both 
in  quantity  and  quality.  The  doctor  must  select  for  his 
patients  medicines  that  he  happens  to  have.  When  the 
rhubarb  is  done  the  patients'  bowels  are  always  loosened  with 
Epsom  salts.  Many  doctors,  too,  have  no  conception  of  the 
humanity  naturally  belonging  to  their  profession.  Their 
whole  aim  is  to  make  money.  They  are  ill-paid,  and  cannot 
make  money  in  the  honourable  practice  of  their  profession, 
since  they  are  required  by  law  to  give  their  services  free,  and 
in  fact  no  one  will  consent  to  pay  them.  They  accordingly 
abuse  their  official  authority,  which  is  by  no  means  limited. 
The  doctor  has  to  watch  over  the  sanitation  of  his  districts, 
and  to  see  to  the  condition  of  all  articles  of  food ;  on  his  deci- 
sion often  depends  that  of  the  judge;  and  the  unprofessional 
man,  however  high  he  may  be  above  the  doctor  in  rank,  in 
many  cases  cannot  interfere.  This  powerful  official  has  the  key 
of  the  people's  treasury,  and  he  will  use  it  unless  he  has  the 
necessary  moral  restraint,  whose  place  no  babbling  of  prayers, 
washings,  and  prostrations  before  the  Deity  will  supply. 
Thus  it  happens,  that,  although  they  are  not  wanting  in 
outward  marks  of  respect  to  a  hakim  pasha,  the  medical  pro- 
fession is  utterly  detested  by  the  people,  and  the  provisions 
made  for  the  maintenance  of  public  health,  by  which  their 
old  habits  are  interfered  with,  are  regarded  by  them  merely 
as  a  mode  of  extortion  devised  by  the  Franks.  They  fear 
the  hospital  almost  more  than  death ;  and  hence  its  inmates, 
as  already  said,  consist  only  of  those  who  are  there  under 
compulsion — soldiers,  prisoners,  and  pilgrims  found  half  dead 
on  the  roads. 

A   COPTIC   MEAL   DURING   A   FAST. 

We  spend  the  evening  in  the  house  of  a  Coptic  scribe,  with 
whom  we  have  made  acquaintance  in  the  morning  in  the 


84  UPPER  EGYPT. 

mudirieli.  He  invited  us  to  become  his  guest,  but  gave  the 
invitation  in  a  very  hesitating  manner;  for  it  happens  to  be 
a  period  of  fasting,  which  it  is  during  nearly  half  the  year. 
Before  every  one  of  the  greater  festivals  (Christmas,  Easter, 
the  feast  of  the  apostles,  the  assumption  of  the  Virgin)  there 
is  a  fast  of  several  weeks,  in  addition  to  which  every  Wed- 
nesday and  Friday  is  a  fast-day.  On  our  entering  the  house 
the  females  are  warned  and  got  out  of  sight  as  in  the  house  of 
the  Moslems.  We  must  seat  ourselves  either  in  the  reception- 
room  or  on  the  terrace  or  verandah  on  a  carpet  on  the  floor, 
where  some  guests  of  the  same  race  and  religion  as  our  host 
have  already  settled  themselves.  The  proceedings  are  pretty 
much  the  same  as  those  we  formerly  witnessed  in  the  house 
of  the  Moslem ;  but  the  stomach  is  not  immediately  satisfied, 
being  treated  for  several  hours  with  date -spirit,  which  we 
get  to  drink  in  small  bottles  like  medicine  bottles.  Our  thirst 
is  kept  alive  by  all  sorts  of  provocatives,  such  as  roasted 
chick-peas  or  maize,  salted  tirmis  (or  lupines),  hazel-nuts, 
and  sweetmeats,  while  we  smoke  and  talk.  The  conversa- 
tion turns  chiefly  on  religion,  which  in  the  East  takes  the 
place  of  politics. 

The  preparation  of  the  liquor  just  mentioned,  to  which  one 
must  be  accustomed  before  one  can  like  it,  may  be  taken  as 
a  characteristic  example  of  Arab  industry,  and  we  shall  there- 
fore stop  to  give  an  account  of  it.  After  the  dates  have  lain 
in  a  suitable  quantity  of  water  for  weeks,  during  which 
period  they  have  been  stirred  several  times  every  day,  and 
have  thus  undergone  the  process  of  fermentation,  the  result- 
ing liquor  is  distilled.  An  ordinary  copper  caldron  with  a 
narrow  mouth  forms  the  retort,  which  stands  on  a  few  stones 
placed  round  the  fire.  The  head  of  the  still  is  formed  by  a 
large  earthenware  jar,  such  as  is  used  for  carrying  water,  a 
so-called  balds,  the  handles  of  which  have  been  sawn  oflf,  and 
which  has  been  cut  away  at  the  mouth  so  as  to  fit  that  of 
the  caldron  exactly.  Towards  the  top  a  round  hole  has  been 
pierced  in  the  side  of  the  jar,  and  in  this  hole  a  straight 
hollow  piece  of  dry  sugar-cane  is  inserted  horizontally  instead 
of  the  ordinary  worm.     Near  the  extremity  this  horizontal 


A  COPTIC  MEAL  DURING  A  FAST.  85 

piece  is  intersected  by  a  similar  vertical  piece,  the  lower 
end  of  which  enters  the  receiver,  which  is  a  copper  vessel 
of  moderate  height  closed  at  the  top  by  a  pad.  The 
receiver  is  kept  cool  by  being  placed  in  a  wide  vessel  sunk 
in  the  earth  and  filled  with  cold  water  which  is  constantly 
renewed.  The  gaps  and  joints  are  stopped  with  rags  and 
dough.  The  pieces  of  cane  especially  are  wound  round  with 
rags  several  times.  A  great  deal  of  the  spirit  of  course 
escapes.  The  joints  cannot  be  often  enough  cemented. 
There  is  always  some  new  hole  out  of  which  the  spirit  bursts, 
not  unfrequently  taking  fire  in  so  doing. 

At  last,  when  the  guests  have  imbibed  a  suflScient  quantity 
of  the  spirit,  and  feel  themselves  in  the  happy  state  of  mind 
and  body  which  they  call  kef,  the  eatables  are  served.  They 
consist  of  steamed  marsh-beans,  lentils,  preserved  olives,  a 
syrup  of  sesamum,  fish,  and  several  sweetmeats,  fruits,  and 
vegetables,  such  as  radishes  (the  leaves  of  which  are  preferred 
to  the  rather  insipid  root),  raw  purple-red  carrots,  and  what- 
ever other  green  vegetables  the  season  produces.  But  all 
animal  food  except  fish,  and  even  such  animal  products  as 
butter,  milk,  and  eggs,  are  rigorously  eschewed.  Soon  after 
the  meal  is  over  the  party  breaks  up,  having  consumed  a 
great  part  of  the  evening  with  gossiping  and  disputing,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  standpoint  of  most  of  those  who  took 
part  in  the  discussion  had  become  far  from  clear.  We  return 
to  our  abode  in  the  opposite  condition  to  that  in  which  we 
had  left  the  Moslem's  feast  the  evening  before — with  empty 
stomach  but  overburdened  brain. 


FOTJRTH    DAY. 
THE   COPTIC   CHURCH   AND   THE   COPTS. 

Sunday  morning  has  just  dawned.  A  number  of  men 
exactly  resembling  the  now  familiar  scribes,  being  dressed 
in  dark-coloured  clothes,  and  mostly  wearing  a  black  turban 


86  UPPER  EGYPT. 

on  their  head,  and  also  a  considerable  number  of  closely- 
veiled  women  as  well  as  children,  are  streaming  into  a  narrow 
lane.  In  that  lane  stands  a  plain  building  in  Gothic  or  Byzan- 
tine style,  not  with  a  lofty  tower  but  with  a  modest  ridge- 
turret.  We  follow.  No  one  hinders  the  Frank,  the  fellow- 
Christian,  from  entering;  indeed,  the  entrance  is  not  closed 
even  against  a  Mussulman,  although  it  is  closed  against  a  Jew. 
We  are  in  the  Coptic  church.  The  interior  is  simple,  not  in 
any  respect  overloaded  with  ornament.  In  the  choir,  within 
an  area  which  the  congregation  is  forbidden  to  encroach  on, 
stands  the  high  altar  with  the  image  of  the  Virgin,  and  some 
tapers  and  missals.  The  aisles  each  terminate  in  a  smaller 
altar  consecrated  to  some  saint,  and  are  adorned  with  a  few  oil- 
paintings  brought  from  Europe.  The  congregation  occupy  the 
nave  and  the  forepart  of  the  choir,  which  is  separated  from  the 
other  part  by  a  latticed  partition.  They  sit  cross-legged 
man  to  man  on  straw  mats  laid  on  the  floor.  Some  are  in 
Sunday  dress,  some  not.  All  keep  their  heads  covered,  and 
most  of  them  take  off  their  shoes.  From  the  gallery  over  the 
door  of  entrance  we  hear  women's  voices,  and  the  still  shriller 
voices  of  little  children.  In  front  of  the  gallery  is  a  lattice 
to  prevent  the  occupants  of  it  from  being  seen,  as  the  devo- 
tions of  those  below  might  thereby  be  disturbed. 

The  mass  has  begun.  Among  the  congregation  in  the  fore- 
part of  the  choir  are  some  of  the  inferior  clergy  dressed  like 
the  rest  of  the  people.  These  stand  at  a  reading-desk,  and 
with  furious  rapidity  read  the  gospels  of  the  day  in  a  sort  of 
chanting  style,  first  in  the  old  Coptic  language,  which  is  still 
kept  up  for  that  purpose,  and  then  in  Arabic  with  a  com- 
mentary for  the  edification  of  the  people.  Meanwhile  a  man 
goes  round  the  congregation  and  distributes  the  host  in  the 
form  of  small  loaves  of  white  unleavened  bread  stamped  with 
a  cross,  each  person  receiving  one.  A  priest  of  very  reverend 
aspect  with  a  long  silvery  beard,  which  suits  a  priest  so  well, 
and  wearing  an  embroidered  white  chasuble,  now  rises  and 
goes  through  some  operations  in  the  most  holy  place  beside 
the  high  altar,  and  then  reads  something  to  the  people.  The 
boys  of  the  choir  strike  large  metal  disks  or  cymbals  together. 


THE  COPTIC   CHUllCH   AND   THE   COPTS.  87 

making  a  great  noise,  which  has,  however,  a  very  solemn 
effect.  At  the  same  time  they  as  well  as  the  congregation 
sing  a  psalm  in  a  subdued  tone  and  in  rather  quick  time. 
The  priest  arrayed  in  a  long  gown  raises  the  crucifix  or  pyx 
in  sight  of  the  people,  and  every  one  bows  and  crosses  him- 
self to  the  beat  of  the  cymbals.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
mass,  the  symbolism  of  which  we  must  admit  that  we  did 
not  understand,  the  congregation  rise  up  and  crowd  round 
the  priest,  who  lays  his  hands  with  a  blessing  on  the  head  of 
every  one,  not  excepting  us  strangers.  The  Christian  brethren 
give  their  hands  to  one  another,  and  after  having  lasted  about 
an  hour  and  a  half  the  service  is  over. 

The  Coptic  Church,  a  heretical  oflTshoot,  as  is  well  known, 
of  the  Greek,  formed  in  the  fifth  century  under  the  emperor 
Marcianus  after  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  also  called  the 
Monophysite  or  Jacobite  Church,  is  found  only  in  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  in  Syria.  It  has  preserved 
many  echoes  or  relics  of  ancient  Christianity,  perhaps  more 
than  other  churches.  It  has  maintained  itself  to  the  present 
day  in  spite  of  the  most  bitter  persecutions  carried  on  through 
many  centuries.  Millions  of  Copts  have  indeed  gradually 
passed  over  to  Islam;  but  those  who  have  remained  faithful 
compel  our  esteem  by  the  firmness  of  their  faith  and  by  their 
endurance.  The  church  is  entirely  independent  of  the  state, 
and  is  subject  to  a  patriarch,  who  is  likewise  head  of  the 
Abyssinian  Church.  Formerly  the  Mohammedan  rulers 
attempted  to  force  their  submission  by  oppression,  but  they 
never  made  any  direct  efforts  to  convert  them.  But  now 
there  is  no  greater  example  of  toleration  to  be  seen  anywhere 
than  that  which  is  exhibited  at  least  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment in  all  these  lands  as  far  as  the  Nile  reaches.  And  even 
the  individual  Mussulman  is  at  least  outwardly  remarkably 
tolerant,  and  never  carries  on  religious  conversations  with  a 
proselytizing  tendency.  As  long  as  an  unbeliever  keeps  him- 
self on  a  proper  social  footing  with  a  Moslem  he  is  his  friend 
and  fellow-citizen.  In  daily  intercourse  the  religious  distinc- 
tion is  hardly  noticeable.  If,  however,  the  unbeliever  renders 
himself  guilty  of  any  offence  he  incurs  a  double  disgrace. 


88  UPPER  EGYPT. 

The  poison  of  slumbering  fanaticism  breaks  out,  and  the 
offender  is  not  only  called  a  scoundrel,  but  also  has  the  name 
of  unbeliever  thrown  at  him  in  contumely;  precisely  as  among 
Christians  and  Jews  in  the  civilized  West.  In  disputes  among 
native  Christians  of  a  purely  ecclesiastical  nature,  for  example 
those  connected  with  marriage,  priest,  kadi,  and  governor 
may  be  seen  sitting  amicably  together  on  the  judicial  bench. 
The  kadi  gives  the  benefit  of  his  wisdom  and  experience 
towards  the  settlement  of  the  question,  the  priest  pronounces 
the  decision  of  the  court,  and  the  governor  executes  it. 

The  Coptic  priests,  whose  dress  does  not  differ  from  that 
of  the  laymen,  but  is  always,  including  the  turban,  of  a  dark 
colour,  actually  live  in  apostolic  poverty,  having  no  regular- 
salary,  and  being  entirely  dependent  for  support  upon  their 
congregation.  Articles  of  food  are  sent  to  their  house,  and 
they  get  a  little  money  on  occasion  of  baptisms,  marriages, 
and  funerals.  Like  the  Moslem  kadi,  they  have  various  judi- 
cial functions  to  discharge,  especially  in  connection  with 
marriages  and  inheritances.  The  want  of  money  makes  them 
very  ready  to  accept  equivocal  presents,  and  they  are  easily 
induced  by  such  a  gift  to  remit  a  few  penances,  which  usually 
consist  in  prayer  and  fasting.  In  Cairo,  so  at  least  it  is  gene- 
rally asserted,  many  of  them  act  the  part  of  match-makers, 
betrothing  Coptic  girls,  though  not  without  the  consent  of 
their  parents,  after  the  manner  of  the  Moslems,  b}''  proclama- 
tion, which  is  totally  contrary  to  their  laws.  The  Copts 
show  great  respect  to  their  priests,  outwardly  at  any  rate. 
They  kiss  their  hands  to  them ;  but  at  bottom  they  seem  to 
hold  many  of  the  priests  in  very  little  esteem,  no  doubt  on 
account  of  such  malpractices  as  that  above  mentioned.  There 
is  a  seminary  for  Christian  priests,  but  of  the  higher  theo- 
logical knowledge,  or  even  of  general  culture,  there  is  no  trace, 
hardly  even  among  the  bishops.  Intending  priests  may  be 
married  before  they  are  consecrated ;  but  after  their  conse- 
cration, if  their  first  wife  dies,  they  are  not  allowed  to  marry 
again.     The  higher  clergy  are  required  to  remain  unmarried. 

The  Copts  read  the  gospels,  which,  like  the  Mussulmans  with 
the  Koran,  they  also  outwardly  hold  in  great  reverence,  and  by 


THE   COPTIC   CHURCH   AND   THE   COPTS.  89 

which  they  swear.  They  baptize  children  by  iramersion, 
have  monasteries,  and  practise  auricular  confession  and  wor- 
ship of  the  Virgin.  The  chief  expression  of  their  Christianity 
consists  in  fasting.  The  pope  is  their  detestation.  Besides  a 
faint  resemblance  in  feature,  and  many  customs  still  prevalent 
among  the  Egyptians  generally,  the  Copt,  the  true  descen- 
dant of  the  great  nation  of  the  Retu,  has  inherited  little  from 
his  remote  forefathers.  In  f\ict  he  turns  yellow  when  we 
tell  him  about  the  splendour  and  magnificence  of  the  land  of 
Kemi,  of  the  quadriune  God  Amun,  and  the  deeds  wrought 
by  the  son  of  the  sun.  He  knows  the  idolatrous  and  accursed 
race  of  the  children  of  Pharaoh  only  from  the  opprobrious 
epithets  which  his  enemies  the  Moslems  bestow  upon  him, 
and  from  the  representations  inspired  by  national  hatred 
given  of  them  by  the  lawgiver  of  the  Jews.  The  bad  repute 
in  which  the  excellent  and  high-minded  Ketu  stand  among 
the  Moslems  can  be  explained  only  by  the  degenerate  effemi- 
nacy of  their  descendants  at  the  time  of  Mohammed.  Even 
the  reproach  of  idolatry  is  at  bottom  not  altogether  justified; 
for  there  is  no  doubt  that  we  must  distinguish  between  the 
deep  philosophic  religion  of  the  initiated  and  the  symbolical 
idol  and  animal  worship,  which  barbarous  form  of  religion 
was  inculcated  by  the  hierarchy  on  the  common  people.  In 
the  ancient  Egyptian  religion  there  was  in  fact  only  one  God; 
the  others  were  merely  attributes  or  energies  of  the  one, 
though  each  had  his  own  emblems. 

As  for  the  modern  Copt,  he  has  become  from  head  to  foot, 
in  manners,  language,  and  spirit,  a  Moslem,  however  un- 
willing he  may  be  to  recognize  the  fact.  His  dress  is  like 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  people,  except  that  he  prefers  darker 
materials.  The  black  turban,  formerly  the  brand  of  the 
Christians  (who  were  obliged  to  wear  a  black  or  blue  turban 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  Moslems),  is  now  voluntarily 
and  gladly  worn  by  them,  and  especially  by  the  Coptic  scribes 
as  a  badge  of  honour.  The  Copt  smiles  at  the  Moslem,  who, 
in  going  through  his  prayers,  turns  his  face  towards  Mecca, 
while  he  himself  with  his  face  turned  to  Jerusalem  mumbles 
out   psalms  by  the  yard  in  a  regular  paternoster  gallop. 


90  UPPER  EGYPT. 

Unabashed  he  pollutes  the  virgin  air  of  the  Mohammedan 
great  month  of  Ramadan  with  clouds  of  smoke  from  his  pipe, 
but  crucifies  his  own  flesh  during  three  quarters  of  the  year 
with  the  scanty  juices  of  vegetable,  fluviatile,  and  marine 
aliments.  Like  the  Moslem  and  the  Jew,  he  has  a  horror  of 
blood  and  swine's  flesh, ^  but  in  addition  has  an  equal  abhor- 
rence of  camel's  flesh,  which  the  Bedouin  Mohammed  per- 
mitted. He  clings  with  excessive  tenacity  to  the  privileges 
he  enjoys  in  the  case  of  his  favourite  spirit.  He  never  tastes 
his  evening  meal  until  his  mind  is  clouded  by  the  vapours  of 
this  water  of  life,  which  he  prepares  for  himself  from  dates. 
To  this  spirit  alone  he  owes  the  rotundity  of  his  body,  and 
perhaps  the  existence  of  his  race,  which  would  otherwise  have 
died  out  long  ago  under  the  regimen  of  pease,  beans,  and  fish 
without  fat  or  butter,  which  form  almost  his  .whole  diet 
during  the  seasons  of  fasting..  For  the  noble  juice  of  the 
grape  the  descendant  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  has  no  taste. 
The  vine  is  much  cultivated  in  Egypt,  and  the  grapes  are 
excellent,  but  are  only  used  for  eating.  All  the  wine  used 
in  the  country  is  imported,  and  the  quantity  consumed  by 
the  natives  is  very  insignificant.  The  drinking  of  spirits  is 
a  characteristic  sign  of  the  degradation  of  the  descendants  of 
the  wine-loving  Retu. 

The  Kopt  as  a  good  Christian  must  live  till  his  death  a 
strict  monogamist,  but,  like  the  Moslem,  is  allowed  to  taste 
the  joys  of  married  life  in  early  youth.  His  spouse  is  gene- 
rally chosen  for  him  by  his  father  from  among  his  own  near 
relations,  and  when  he  has  married  her  he  closely  secludes 
her  from  the  male  world  without.  Like  the  early  Christians, 
he  loves  to  pray  in  domestic  association  with  his  fellow- 
Christians,  and  seals  the  prayer  with  a  fraternal  pressure  of 

^  By  one  religion  or  another  pretty  nearly  all  domestic  animals  are  forbidden; 
thus  the  cow  is  forbidden  by  the  Hindus,  and  was  so  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
who  also  apparently  interdicted  the  sheep;  the  Abyssinians  interdict  the  goose. 
Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  the  swine  was-  entirely  forbidden  as  an  article  of 
food  only  to  the  priests;  the  other  orders  ate  it,  at  least  occasionally,  as  at  the 
sacrifice  of  Typho.  This  animal  was,  however,  thoroughly  despised.  Swine- 
herds were  not  permitted  to  enter  a  temple,  and  no  one  having  a  different 
employment  would  marry  one  of  their  daughters. 


THE   BATH.  91 

the  hand.  He  does  not  readily  allow  his  Christian  brethren, 
to  whatever  confession  they  may  belong,  to  suffer  want ;  but 
his  love  for  his  neighbour  is  generally  confined  to  those  who 
own  the  name  of  Christian.  In  proof  of  his  Christianity  he 
will  often  turn  up  his  sleeves,  and  show  a  blue  cross  indelibly 
tatooed  upon  his  arm.  The  Kopt  is  fanatical,  servile,  and 
avaricious,  but  more  accessible  to  enlightenment  than  the 
Koran-bound  Moslem. 

As  the  missionaries  scattered  over  Egypt  accomplish  vir- 
tually nothing  with  the  Moslems,  who  are  too  firm  in  their 
faith  to  yield  to  such  efiforts,  they  have  long  turned  their 
eyes  on  the  wandering  Koptic  sheep,  and  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants vie  with  one  another  in  attempts  to  gain  them  over. 
The  former  had  at  one  time  some  success,  since  the  adoption 
of  the  Catholic  faith  brought  them  at  least  the  moral  support 
of  a  Catholic  foreign  power,  namely  Austria.  In  quite  recent 
times,  however,  the  Protestants  have  been  making  a  great 
stir,  and  they  have  many  avowed  and  still  more  secret  ad- 
herents. The  remission  of  fasting,  a  practice  which  causes 
so  many  Kopts  to  suflfer  from  stomach  complaints,  may  have 
not  a  little  to  do  with  this  success.  The  Protestant  mission 
is  an  organization  of  the  American  Methodists ;  but  the  work 
is  chiefly  carried  on  by  a  native  converted  Kopt  (belouging 
to  Kus),  who  is  a  successful  reformer,  and  knows  how  to 
convince  his  fellow-countrymen  and  inspire  them  with  enthus- 
iasm. The  sect  which  calls  itself  Protestant  spread  so  rapidly, 
that  the  Koptic  patriarch  was  compelled  to  interfere,  and  the 
Protestant  agitator  was  condemned  with  the  help  of  the 
government  to  be  deported  to  Fazogl,  the  Egyptian  Cayenne, 
and  would  actually  have  been  sent  there  had  not  the 
American  consul  exerted  himself  in  his  favour.  In  some 
districts  the  Protestant  zeal  that  fired  a  portion  of  the  people 
led  them  even  to  plunder  the  ancient  Coptic  mother  church, 
and  the  Moslem  government  had  to  restore  order. 

THE   BATH. 

After  hearing  the  Sunday  morning  mass  in  the  Coptic 
Church  we  determine  to  have  a  bath.     We  walk  through  a 


92  UPPER  EGYPT. 

few  lanes  and  stop  at  a  door,  surmounted  by  a  projecting 
pediment,  painted  in  rather  childish  style  in  a  variety  of 
colours.  We  pass  from  the  street  into  a  large  hall,  where  the 
proprietor  of  the  bath  receives  us  sitting  upon  his  divan.  The 
hall  serves  as  the  office  of  the  bath,  for  dr^dng  linen,  and  for 
dressing  and  undressing  in.  The  master  of  the  bath  points 
us  to  a  platform  at  the  side,  covered  with  straw  mats,  where 
we  exchange  our  clothes  for  a  bathing  costume,  which  consists 
in  a  cloth  put  round  the  loins,  with  the  addition  perhaps  of 
a  bathing  turban.  An  attendant  similarly  attired  gives  us 
liis  hand  to  lead  us  through  a  dark  passage,  along  whose 
wet  polished  marble  floor,  smooth  and  slippery  as  ice,  we 
have  no  little  difficulty  in  tottering  with  our  naked  feet. 
This  passage  conducts  us  to  the  steaming -room,  where  the 
sultry  vapour,  that  rises  from  a  hot  fountain  bubbling  up  in 
the  middle  of  a  large  marble  octagon,  condenses  on  the  cooler 
dome-shaped  roof  of  the  hall,  and  descends  in  drops.  Light 
is  admitted  by  a  number  of  small  openings  in  the  roof  closed 
with  glass.  "We  seat  ourselves  on  the  octagon,  and  observe 
the  bathers  who  pass  in  succession.  We  have  already  had 
sufficient  opportunity  on  the  public  streets  of  noticing  the 
great  breadth  of  the  upper  part  of  their  bodies  and  the  slen- 
derness  of  their  limbs,  but  we  have  never  had  the  chance 
of  seeing  them  without  a  head-covering  of  some  sort.  The 
men  who  are  now  moving  about  in  the  bathing  establishment, 
however,  are  mostly  bare-headed.  A  bald  head  has  been  an 
object  of  timid  reverence  on  our  part  ever  since  the  prophet 
Elisha  caused  the  children  who  reviled  him  to  be  consumed 
by  bears,  and  we  accordingly  pay  due  respect  to  the  old 
bald-headed  bathers.  But  most  of  these  bald  heads  seem 
to  possess  abundance  of  vital  force,  and  have  a  youthful 
often  child-like  appearance.  Here  comes  one  whose  head  is 
crowned  by  a  luxuriant  tuft  of  hair  on  the  summit;  here  is 
another  from  the  upper  part  of  whose  brow  spring  two  long 
horns  like  those  of  the  lawgiver  of  the  Jews;  this  one 
wears  a  tuft  of  hair  in  front  like  Peter,  that  one  has  only 
the  back  part  of  his  head  overgrown  with  a  shaggy  covering ; 
in  short,  locks  of  hair  may  be  allowed  to  grow  at  any  point 


THE   BATH.  93 

of  the  skull  that  the  wearer  pleases,  but  never  over  the 
v^^hole  skull,  for  that  would  stamp  a  man  as  an  unbe- 
liever. All  this  is  the  result  of  the  tonsure,  recommended 
by  the  forethought  of  the  prophet  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness, 
but  not  invented  by  him,  since  the  original  inhabitants  of 
the  land  of  Kemi  always  had  their  heads  shaved  smooth. 
In  modern  Egypt  the  men  shave  the  hair  off  their  whole 
body  except  the  face,  which  is  seldom  shaved  at  all  even  by 
the  peasants.  The  women  keep  their  hair.  In  a  room  adjoin- 
ing there  is  a  small  pond  where  one  can  stand  breast-deep  in 
water  and  parboil  his  limbs  in  company  with  the  lame,  the 
leprous,  and  the  syphilitic.  We,  however,  are  led  by  another 
attendant  into  a  dark  ante-chamber  and  subjected  to  a  tedious 
purifying  process.  One  attendant  first  pulls  at  our  limbs  as 
if  he  wished  to  tear  them  off.  We  hear  with  alarm  all  our 
joints  crack,  yet  we  feel  the  operation  so  pleasant  that  we 
calmly  let  him  proceed.  Our  flesh  is  then  firmly  stroked, 
kneaded,  and  worked.  A  douche  of  hot  water  now  wets  the 
whole  surface  of  our  body,  and  with  such  suddenness  that 
the  heart  and  breathing  are  checked.  Thereupon  the  attend- 
ant, enveloping  his  hand  in  a  sort  of  bag-shaped  glove  made 
of  coarse  cloth,  begins  to  stroke  us  all  over,  thoroughly 
cleansing  the  pores  of  impurities,  which  become  rolled  up 
into  spindle-shaped  and  cylindrical  masses  and  fall  down  to 
the  floor.  We  look  with  astonishment  upon  the  heaps  of 
refuse  with  which  our  skin  was  loaded.  After  the  body  has 
been  soaped  from  head  to  foot,  and  played  upon  by  streams 
of  hot  water,  the  shampooer  leaves  us  to  our  fate,  and  we 
quit  the  scouring-room  cleaner  than  marble.  The  steaming- 
room,  on  first  entering  which  we  were  like  to  suffocate,  now 
seems  to  us  like  an  ice-cellar,  and  after  getting  a  short  dry 
cloak  thrown  round  us  by  the  attendant  who  conducted  us 
into  this  room,  we  hurry,  shivering  and  with  chattering 
teeth,  into  the  still  colder  outer  room.  A  young  man 
receives  us  in  the  dressing-room,  and  rubs  us  for  a  con- 
siderable time  with  dry  warm  cloths,  an  operation  which 
we  find  very  agreeable.  Meanwhile  we  enjoy  our  pipe  and 
sip  a  small  cup  of  coffee.     Finally  we  dress,  pay  the  master 


&4  UPPER   EGYPT. 

of  the  bath  his  fee,  and  give  a  trifle  to  every  one  who  has 
rendered  any  services  to  our  body. 

THE  DOGS. 

After  our  bath  we  make  the  best  of  our  way  into  the  fresh 
air,  and  ascend  one  of  the  many  eminences  outside  the  town 
which  have  been  formed  by  the  gradual  accumulation  of  the  re- 
fuse carried  thither.  In  Upper  Egypt  those  eminences  near  the 
towns  are  the  homes  of  the  dogs,  which  seldom  venture  into 
the  streets  except  by  night,  while  they  remain  both  night 
and  day  in  the  larger  towns  of  Lower  Egypt,  the  members 
of  each  family  strictly  confining  themselves  to  their  own 
locality,  and  clearing  the  streets  from  filth.  These  dirty 
jackal-like  and  mostly  ugly  red-haired  animals,  which  have 
neither  property  nor  master  to  guard,  evidently  look  upon 
our  appearance,  which  is  very  unexpected,  as  boding  no  good 
to  them.  Their  first  feeling  is  one  of  cowardly  fear,  mani- 
fested by  the  way  in  which  their  tails  curl  down  between 
their  legs,  and  then  by  the  manner  in  which  they  sneak 
round  about  us  in  an  arc  of  a  circle,  while  they  steadily 
eye  us  with  a  look  of  distrust.  When  they  are  beyond 
the  reach  of  any  immediate  danger  they  set  up  a  hoarse 
yelping  and  a  most  disagreeable  barking.  These  sounds 
communicate  themselves  to  the  families  of  dogs  on  the 
next  eminences  of  the  same  kind,  and  spread  in  ever  widen- 
ing circles,  proclaiming  to  the  whole  town  that  something 
extraordinary  must  have  taken  place,  and  the  din  returns 
to  our  suffering  ears  like  a  hundred- voiced  echo.  The  dog, 
the  faithful  friend  of  man,  has  degenerated  in  the  towns  of 
the  East  to  a  cowardly  misanthrope,  and  we  cannot  blame 
him  for  it  when  we  consider  the  numerous  little  attentions 
that  the  Mohammedan  in  his  zeal  against  uncleanliness  has 
bestowed  on  him,  and  which  have  resulted  in  the  limping 
legs,  the  broken  ribs,  and  ulcerated  skins  to  be  seen  every- 
where. A  few  bitten  noses  and  torn  ears  must  be  laid  to 
the  account  of  the  exclusiveness  which  these  creatures  exhibit 
among  themselves.     Woe  to  the  dog  whicli  a  roving  spirit, 


BOYS   AND    GIRLS   AT   PLAY.  95 

hunger,  or  any  other  impulse  has  brought  among  the  inhos- 
pitable members  of  a  neighbouring  pack.  Among  the  ancient 
Egyptians  the  dog  met  with  an  entirely  opposite  treatment. 
In  those  times  he  was  highly  esteemed,  and  in  some  places 
was  worshipped.  Mummies  of  dogs  have  been  found  at 
Lycopolis,  near  Siout.  Cats  enjoy  a  certain,  consideration 
even  at  the  present  day. 

In  our  peregrination  we  pass  a  place  where  building  is 
going  on.  A  large  number  of  people,  mostly  quite  naked 
boys  and  half-naked  girls,  but  also  men  and  poor  women 
pretty  well  advanced  in  years,  are  engaged  in  carrying 
earth  and  stones  from  one  place  to  another.  An  overseer 
is  set  over  each  division  of  these  labourers,  and  goes  about 
with  an  uplifted  rod  in  his  hand  keeping  his  gang  dili- 
gently at  work  by  word  and  deed.  But  that  is  hardly 
necessary,  for  the  loud  never-ending  song  which  old  and 
young  sing  to  their  work,  a  song  embracing  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  notes,  with  a  regularly  recurring  refrain, 
and  accompanied  by  clapping  of  the  hands,  is  in  itself  suffi- 
cient to  maintain  their  activity.  Every  division  sings  in  its 
own  way,  and  so  they  go  on  humming  and  bustling  like  a 
swarm  of  bees.  Loads  are  carried  in  baskets  on  the  head  or 
shoulders,  often  also  upon  a  sort  of  tray  which  they  hold  in 
front  pretty  high  on  the  body  grasping  the  outer  edge  with 
their  hands  which  are  bent  well  back.  Similar  scenes  down 
to  the  minutest  details  are  represented  on  the  pictures  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians. 

BOYS  AND   GIRLS  AT  PLAY. 

At  a  little  open  space  near  by  we  hear  the  confused  shouts 
and  cries  of  boys  at  play.  Some  bold  warriors,  holding  u{) 
one  foot  and  hopping  on  the  other,  try  to  knock  each  otlier 
down,  and  in  order  to  play  at  this  game  they  have  taken  off 
their  only  garment,  a  blue  shirt,  and  bound  it  round  their 
loins.  Before  long  a  weakling  is  thrown  down,  and  kissing 
the  ground,  raises  a  frightful  cry  and  begins  to  abuse  his  con- 
queror worse  than  Thersites.    The  latter  in  retaliation  makes 


96  UPPEK  EGYPT. 

violent  clutches  at  the  only  tuft  of  hair  that  has  been  left  on 

the  boy's  shaved  head,  from  wliich  his  cap  has  fallen  during 

the  scuffle.     At  last  the  boy  gets  free  and  runs  off,  casting  all 

sorts  of  opprobrious  epithets,  among  which  that  of  ''bastard" 

is  never  wantinor  at  his  antaofonist,  and  his  father  and  forc- 
es' O  ' 

fathers. 

Here  also  some  boys  have  laid  themselves  down  on  the  dusty 
ground,  on  which  they  have  improvised  a  dranght-board  by 
drawing  lines  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  and  are  playing 
a  game  like  draughts  with  stones  picked  up  from  the  street 
for  men.  The  men  are  called  Moslim  and  Nusrani  (Christian), 
and  these  names  are  always  cried  aloud.  Others  drive  a  ball 
by  means  of  a  club,  or  mounted  on  each  other's  backs  play  the 
ball-game  of  which  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  especially  the 
Egyptian  women,  were  so  fond.  Some  are  chasing  a  humble 
bee,  setting  off  crackers,  or  firing  small  pocket-pistols.  Some 
animal  just  caught,  for  example,  a  prickly  fish,  or,  it  may 
be  a  dog,  is  dragged  along  the  ground  with  some  life  still  in 
it,  and  is  beaten  to  death  amid  loud  cries  of  yistdhel!  (it 
deserves  it).  The  same  cry  is  heard  on  the  evening  before 
the  slaughter  of  any  large  animal,  such  as  a  camel  or  a  buffalo, 
which  is  always  an  event  in  small  places.  The  seller  or 
slaughterer  marches  with  his  beast  through  the  whole  village 
followed  by  a  band  of  boys,  sometimes  paid  for  the  purpose, 
sometimes  not,  crying  out  incessantly  yistdhel !  which  in  this 
case  is  equivalent  to :  ''it  is  good  value."  The  buyers  can  thus 
see  with  their  own  eyes,  while  the  animal  is  still  alive,  whether 
its  flesh  is  sound  and  fat. 

Another  group  of  boys  are  engaged  in  the  imitation  of 
those  well-known  religious  gymnastic  exercises,  called  Zik7\ 
A  choir  of  little  songsters,  who  are  not  yet  fully  able  to  speak 
their  words  correctly,  sing  with  a  loud  voice  and  rapt  expres- 
sion in  honour  of  the  Prophet,  repeating  the  phrase:  "la  illah 
ill  allah,  Mohammed  l{r)asul  allah"  A  diminutive  pair  of 
human  beings  still  at  the  very  entrance  of  life,  and  wearing 
the  innocent  and  simple  dress  of  paradise,  where  man  and 
beast  still  lived  a  quiet  life  at  peace  with  one  another,  roll 
themselves  on  their  mother  earth  in  silent  enjoyment;  for 


SCHOOL.  97 

numberless  flies  have  found  an  undisturbed  resting-place  on 
their  oily  countenances  and  little  watery  eyes.  The  little 
children  are  playing  with  a  "bride,"  that  is,  a  doll  scarcely 
bearing  any  resemblance  to  the  human  form,  with  shells,  a 
clay  camel,  and  the  like.  But  there  are  not  many  kinds  of 
toys  in  the  children's  hands,  for  they  are  considered  as  articles 
of  luxury,  and  as  such  indeed  toys  are  pretty  good  standards 
of  civilization. 

As  soon  as  we  are  observed  by  the  boys,  they  begin  chirp- 
ing in  our  ears  Bakshish  yd  chauageh.  In  vain  we  try  not 
to  hear  them.  The  further  off  we  remove,  the  more  the  little 
fellows  feel  themselves  out  of  our  reach,  all  the  louder  and 
more  general  do  their  demands  become,  and  they  now  also 
bestow  upon  us  the  title  of  "Nusrani"  (Christian),  and  every 
epithet  that  rhymes  with  that  appellative. 

SCHOOL. 

We  continue  our  wanderings  through  the  streets  and  lanes 
of  the  town,  expecting  to  fall  in  with  other  interesting  scenes 
characteristic  of  the  East,  and  before  long  a  horrible  confused 
noise  arising  from  boys'  voices  and  proceeding  from  a  small 
house  like  a  chapel  forces  itself  on  our  ears.  We  put  our  head  in 
at  the  open  door,  and  see  a  worthy  schoolmaster  sitting  with  a 
cane  in  his  hand  in  the  midst  of  his  scholars  on  the  floor  of  the 
school-room,  which  is  bare  of  furniture.  All  stages  of  boy- 
hood are  represented,  from  that  at  which  the  lisp  and  stammer 
of  childhood  are  scarcely  given  up  to  that  at  which  the  youth 
becomes  a  man.  One  of  the  crowd,  holding  up  a  wooden  or 
metal  tablet  close  in  front  of  him,  is  practising  himself  in 
reading  aloud  the  venerable  basis  of  all  science,  the  alphabet, 
which  the  master  has  written  out  for  him  with  large  strokes; 
another  makes  his  first  attempts  in  writing ;  a  third,  more 
advanced,  is  reading  or  rather  singing  from  the  "pre-eminent 
book,''  the  Koran,  and  accompanies  his  reading  with  an  ener- 
getic oscillation  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  The  master 
assists  the  efforts  of  every  individual  scholar  with  his  superior 
knowledge,  and  not  rarely  also  with  the  weight  of  his  cane. 


98         •  UPPER   EGYPT. 

Nor  does  he  lose  sight  of  the  general  body  of  scholars,  for  his 
cane  comes  down  with  the  speed  of  lightning  on  the  knuckles 
of  some  inattentive  boys,  who  were  carrying  on  all  sorts  of 
games  behind  his  back.  An  assistant,  chosen  from  among 
his  best  pupils,  aids  him  to  the  best  of  his  ability  in  the  prac- 
tice of  his  pedagogic  calling,  instructs  the  younger  ones  with 
a  manifest  consciousness  of  his  own  importance,  and  makes 
no  scruples  about  letting  those  who  have  been  placed  under 
his  charge  feel  the  weight  of  the  cane  intrusted  to  him.  In 
the  case  of  one  of  the  learners  the  customary  blows  on  the 
various  members  of  the  body  have  no  effect,  and,  like  the 
offender  in  the  court  of  justice,  he  is  stretched  out  upon  the 
floor  by  his  fellow- pupils,  who  act  with  great  readiness  the 
part  of  officers  to  their  master,  and  is  treated  to  the  bastinado. 
From  sunrise  till  the  evening  call  the  schoolmaster  is  re- 
quired to  keep  his  pupils  employed,  allowing,  however,  a 
suitable  period  for  relaxation  at  the  time  of  the  morning  and 
mid- day  meals.  Every  Thursday  morning  there  is  a  public 
examination,  during  which  the  teacher  remains  a  passive 
observer,  and  leaves  the  entire  management  of  the  school  to 
his  youthful  assistant.  The  teacher  receives  a  weekly  fee  of 
one  piastre  for  every  pupil.  Friday  is  always  a  holiday.  If 
the  pupil  after  several  years'  schooling  is  able  to  drone  off  a 
few  chapters  of  the  Koran,  the  happy  father  is  satisfied,  the 
skilful  teacher  receives  from  him  a  few  crowns  as  an  honorary 
recompense  for  his  labours,  and  the  learned  son  leaves  the 
school  for  ever.  The  high  fees  obtained  by  the  numerous 
professional  scribes  shows  how  far  from  general,  and  how 
imperfect  is  the  education  of  the  people.  It  hardly  needs  to 
be  mentioned  that  the  teachers  cannot  live  on  the  insigni- 
ficant fee  that  they  get  from  their  pupils.  They  accordingly 
take  upon  themselves  various  other  functions,  such  as  those 
of  text-writers,  public  readers  of  the  Koran,  hymn-singers, 
and  attendants  at  the  shrines  of  the  saints. 

A  MOSQUE. 

High  in  air  above  us  there  sounds  a  wonderful  melody.    It 
is  the  call  to  prayer,  an  institution  peculiar  to  Mohammedan 


A   MOSQUE.  99 

countries.  On  the  parapet  of  a  tower  which  rises  like  a  pillar 
from  the  midst  of  the  dense  mass  of  houses,  we  see  the  Muezzin, 
the  functionary  who  warns  believers  to  bow  themselves  in 
adoration  before  the  "highest  and  only  God,  and  Mohammed 
is  his  prophet/'  We  allow  ourselves  to  be  carried  along  by 
the  streams  of  people  who  are  now  proceeding  from  all  quar- 
ters in  the  direction  in  which  the  cry  was  heard,  and  we  soon 
find  ourselves  before  the  temple. 

Although  we  cannot  here  expect  the  majestic  splendour  of 
one  of  the  mosques  of  the  caliphs  in  the  capital,  yet  we  feel 
attracted  by  the  peculiar  taste  of  the  modern  Arabic  architect. 
On  the  simple  basis  of  a  wall  built  with  square-cut  stones, 
he  has  employed  all  those  artistic  devices  on  which  his  reli- 
gion, prohibiting  the  imitation  of  anything  having  life,^  per- 
mits him  to  exercise  his  creative  ideas;  namely,  mosaics, 
arabesques,  geometrical  figures,  and  alphabetical  writing  All 
these  modes  of  decoration  are  lavishly  employed,  sometimes 
with  elegance  sometimes  altogether  tastelessly,  on  every  part 
of  the  walls,  but  more  especially  on  the  portals  and  windows, 
which  here,  where  there  is  no  harem  to  hide,  can  be  made 
more  numerous.  In  making  these  openings  the  builder  is  not 
content  with  carrying  out  a  single  system,  but  forms  a  new 
style  by  the  simultaneous  use  of  all  figures  in  which  a  wall 
can  be  imagined  to  be  regularly  pierced.  The  curve  of  the  ass's 
back  is  seen  in  familiar  juxtaposition  with  the  camel's  hump; 
the  horse-shoe  of  the  Moor  appears  in  amicable  alliance  with 
the  round  arch  of  the  Byzantine;  the  pointed  arch  soars  aloft 
alongside  of  prosaic  rectilinears.  Points,  lines,  triangles, 
rhombuses,  polygons,  circles,  arcs,  undulations,  and  zigzags 
in  all  colours  are  chaotically  distributed  over  the  walls.  The 
natural  freedom  of  the  Arabic  writing  has  furnished  the 
means  of  producing  true  works  of  art  in  the  form  of  inscrip- 
tions, which  are  scattered  over  every  part  of  the  edifice. 

^  A  rigid  Mussulman  cannot  easily  be  induced  to  have  his  portrait  painted, 
or  to  get  himself  photographed;  it  is  only  those  who  have  come  in  contact  vsrith 
Europeans  who  have  no  scruples  on  that  score.  The  view  of  the  Prophet  is  that 
in  painting  anything  having  life  something  is  abstracted  from  the  soul  of  the 
object  portrayed. 


100  UPPER  EGYPT. 

High  above  on  the  flat  roof  numerous  generations  of  cupolas 
sprout  round  the  great  mother  dome. 

However  marvellous  and  fantastic  the  outside  shell  of  the 
temple  may  be,  the  interior  is  just  as  simple  and  puritanically 
devoid  of  ornament.  In  its  essential  features  it  differs  so 
little  from  that  of  a  Christian  basilica  that  one  is  led  to 
ask  whether  the  founders  of  Islam,  who  displayed  as  little 
original  genius  for  art  as  the  Vandals,  did  not  get  their 
mosques  built  by  conquered  renegades.  The  high  altar, 
where  the  Mohammedan  lay-priest  celebrates  mass  on 
Fridays,  has  becQme  a  wooden  table  supported  by  a  few 
pillars.  The  pulpit  has  been  retained.  Instead  of  the  blas- 
phemous crucifix  the  eyes  of  the  congregation  are  diverted 
to  the  niche  in  the  wall,  behind  which  lies  Mecca.  Besides 
these  furnishings  and  a  few  framed  inscriptions  on  the  walls 
the  interior  spaces  contain  nothing  but  the  invisible  spirit  of 
God.  The  old  Arabic  style  of  building  has  nothing  in  com- 
mon with  the  ancient  Egyptian.  At  the  most  a  few  columns 
of  ancient  temples  are  occasionally  inserted  in  the  more 
modern  structures.  According  to  some  art  critics  the  funda- 
mental idea  of  the  mosque  is  the  Bedouin  tent,  and  that  of 
the  arabesques  the  texture  of  a  carpet. 

We  have  the  audacity  to  slink  into  the  interior  and 
place  ourselves  behind  a  pillar,  and  this  we  have  accomplished 
by  slipping  a  piece  of  silver  into  the  hand  of  the  door-keeper, 
who  wished  to  preserve  the  sanctuary  from  being  trodden 
by  the  unclean  Frank.  On  another  occasion  we  obtain 
entrance  through  meeting  with  a  friend  who  closes  the  eyes 
of  his  fanatical  feUow-believers  by  observing  that  at  the 
bottom  of  our  heart  we  are  a  Moslem.  In  any  case  we 
have,  in  common  with  the  Moslems  themselves,  to  take  off 
our  shoes. 

Before  prayer  the  Moslem  must  always  carefully  wash 
with  running  water  all  those  parts  of  his  body  liable  to 
become  polluted  by  contact  with  the  outer  world;  though  it 
may  be  that  he  does  not  always  at  the  same  time  purify  his 
heart,  which  the  washing  symbolically  represents.  The  priests 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  almost  as  particular  in  this 


A  MOSQUE.         "''>''  ^  ^  ,,'  i  ^  ' , ;  Jip  jL\ 

respect,  being  likewise  accustomed  to  perform  religious  ablu- 
tions several  times  a  day. 

By  the  time  the  last  notes  of  the  chant  of  the  crier  on  the 
minaret  have  died  away  the  whole  congregation  has  arranged 
itself  in  rows  before  the  Lord  of  hosts,  with  naked  feet  but 
covered  heads.  Each  one  visibly  fills  his  soul  with  a  purpose 
of  devotion,  energetically  throwing  aside  for  this  solemn 
moment  all  joys  and  sorrows,  all  the  hate  and  love  belonging 
to  earthly  life.  Under  the  guidance  of  an  imam  they  then 
go  through  a  series  of  observances,  consisting  in  bending  the 
body,  falling  on  the  knees,  kissing  the  ground,  turning  the 
head,  and  performing  a  number  of  movements  with  their 
arms,  hands,  and  fingers  with  all  the  precision  of  soldiers  exer- 
cising, and  all  according  to  fixed  regulations,  in  which  the 
ambassador  of  God  has  been  able  to  declare  with  accuracy 
what  movements  of  the  foot  and  hand,  and  what  particular 
arrangement  of  the  fingers,  are  most  pleasing  to  God  in  any 
operation  that  has  to  be  performed.  As  in  the  Christian 
Church  the  boys  in  the  choir  heighten  the  solemnity  of  the 
chief  ceremonies  of  the  mass  by  the  sounding  of  cymbals;  in 
the  Mohammedan  service  the  minaret- crier,  who  has  by  this 
time  descended  from  his  elevated  station,  sings  out  the  ex- 
alted names  of  God  and  the  Prophet,  which  from  time  to 
time  are  uttered  in  a  loud  voice  by  the  otherwise  silent 
worshippers.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  fatha,  the  Moham- 
medan paternoster,  the  whole  congregation  join  in  a  pro- 
longed Amen,  which  is  pronounced  in  a  low  tone,  and  has 
a  very  impressive  effect.  Finally,  after  the  worshipper  has 
discharged  the  devotional  duties  common  to  all,  he  kneels 
upon  the  ground  and  lays  the  wants  of  his  own  heart  before 
his  creator,  his  mediator  Mohammed,  and  Mohammed's  holy 
family,  and  as  he  does  this  he  holds  his  hands  outstretched 
as  if  on  them  he  had  written  his  wants  and  were  thence 
reading  them  off!  All  these  ceremonies  are  performed  with- 
out the  assistance  of  any  priest.  Even  the  sermon  on  Fridays 
is  delivered  by  a  layman,  it  may  be  an  artisan.  In  the 
Christian  sense  of  the  word  Islam  has  no  clergy,  unless  this 
name  is  given  to  the  ulema  and  the  kadis  or  ecclesiastical 


^i  (4^  ■''''''"'''''' '        UPPER  EGYPT. 

judges,  who  have  studied  theology.  It  is  in  fact  the 
grandest  thing  in  Islam,  that  its  strength  lies  not  in  the 
hierarchy  but  in  the  people. 

As  if  awakening  from  a  long  and  beautiful  dream,  in  which 
he  believed  himself  to  have  seen  the  face  of  God,  the  Moslem 
at  the  end  of  the  hour  of  prayer  takes  leave  of  the  spiritual 
world  and  the  angels  who  stood  at  his  side,  wipes  his  face 
with  his  hands,  and  steps  out  into  the  world  of  every-day  life, 
proud  to  be  adorned  with  the  dust  of  the  mosque  which  has 
stuck  to  his  moist  brow  as  he  kissed  the  earth.  Those  who 
cannot  so  easily  set  their  minds  at  rest  find  their  way  out  of 
their  difficulties  by  means  of  their  rosary,  as  Theseus  made 
his  escape  from  the  labyrinth  with  the  help  of  a  clue  of  thread. 
They  mutter  some  unintelligible  verses,  and  counting  off  one 
knot  after  another  they  pour  out  their  feelings  thirty-three 
times  in  honour  of  the  glory  of  God  (subhan  allah),  thirty- 
three  times  they  render  to  him  praise  and  thanks  (el  hamdu 
lillah),  thirty-three  times  they  acknowledge  his  supreme 
greatness  (allahu  akhar),  and  with  the  ninety-ninth  knot 
they  have  once  more  happily  arrived  on  this  side  of  exis- 
tence, and  pursue  their  good  or  evil  ways  exactly  according 
to  their  old  proclivities. 

But  scarcely  has  the  sun  begun  to  descend  in  the  heavens 
when  the  crier  again  ascends  the  minaret,  and  everything 
follows  in  the  same  order  as  in  the  morning;  and  the  same 
is  the  case  also  when  the  last  streak  of  day  has  disappeared 
and  the  vault  of  heaven  is  sprinkled  over  with  stars.  The 
Moslem  thus  prays  at  the  first  dawning  of  the  day,  as  soon  as 
a  white  thread  can  be  distinguished  from  a  black,  again  at 
mid-day  when  the  sun  has  reached  the  culmination  of  his  daily 
course,  and  again  at  evening  when  the  length  of  a  man's  shadow 
is  equal  to  the  height  of  his  body.  It  is  no  slight  labour  that 
Islam  exacts  of  her  followers.  Their  prayers  may,  however, 
be  performed  in  their  own  houses,  on  the  street,  or  wherever 
the  worshippers  may  be,  for  God  is  everywhere.  It  is  also  free 
to  the  Moslem  to  give  himself  up  to  prayer  at  any  time  in 
the  interval  between  one  hour  of  prayer  and  another.  The 
Moslem  does  not  care  to  pray  in  the  stillness  of  his  chamber. 


A  saint's  mausoleum.  103 

He  prefers  publicity  and  the  companionship  of  his  brethren 
at  these  exercises.  In  this  way  he  gains  not  a  little  as  a  pious 
man  in  the  esteem  of  his  fellow  citizens. 

A  saint's  mausoleum. 

We  again  seek  the  open  air,  and  are  met  by  a  band  of 
men,  who  hurry  past  us  laughing,  disputing,  and  singing. 
Suddenly  one  cries  out:  '^A  Fatha  to  our  lord  Abdallah," 
and  all  stop  before  the  lattice-window  of  a  chapel.  The 
noisy  band  is  converted  into  a  group  of  pious  worshippers 
holding  their  hands  before  their  faces.  After  a  minute's 
pause  they  proceed  on  their  way  with  the  same  boisterous 
noise  as  before.  The  sacred  edifice,  resembling  in  its  funda- 
mental conception  the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian,  is  built  of 
stone  or  clay,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  cube  surmounted  by  an 
octagon  terminating  in  a  cupola.  On  each  of  the  four  corners 
of  the  cubical  portion  is  erected  a  small  tower  or  minaret, 
and  the  finial  of  the  dome  is  crowned  by  a  crescent  moon, 
lying  so  that  the  points  are  turned  upwards.  The  half- 
moon  is  never  used,  for  it  has  lost  interest  for  the  adherents 
of  Islam,  and  there  is  not  even  a  name  for  it  in  the  language. 
Nor  is  it  the  imaginary  new  moon  of  the  calendar,  but  the 
newly  risen  narrow  sickle-shaped  strip  as  it  first  shows  itself 
after  th6  beginning  of  each  lunar  month,  which  is  the  symbol 
of  Islam  and  the  badge  of  its  rulers.  The  appearance  of  this 
on  the  western  horizon  every  believer  watches  month  by 
month  like  his  Sabsean  forefathers  in  order  to  obtain  from 
it,  or  at  least  by  means  of  that  sign,  prosperity  and  bliss. 
The  buildings  already  mentioned  form  the  whole  of  the 
sanctuary,  unless  perhaps  there  is  an  open  court  adjoining  with 
a  number  of  outbuildings,  and  surrounded  by  a  quadrangu- 
lar wall.  On  the  flat  roof  of  these  outbuildings  we  observe 
a  frame  made  up  of  wooden  bars,  which,  on  the  annual  festival 
of  the  saintly  patron  of  the  mausoleum  is  carried  in  procession 
splendidly  arrayed,  and  is  called  a  mdhmel.  We  boldly  enter 
in  at  the  gate.  A  few  nods  suffice  to  dispel  the  scruples  of 
the  guardian  of  the  sacred  spot;  and  in  a  short  time,  in  con- 


104j 


UPPER  EGYPT. 


sequence  of  the  singular  indulgence  displayed  to  us^  even  the 
mysterious  domed  hall  is  trodden  by  our  Christian  feet  after 
they  have  been  deprived  of  their  unclean  covering.  A  large 
stone  carved  in  the  form  of  a  sarcophagus  takes  up  the  greater 
part  of  the  narrow  space.     The  stone  is  covered  with  a  brightr 


Mausoleum  of  a  Saint. 


green  or  red  cloth  with  inscriptions  embroidered  on  it  in  gold 
and  silver,  and  with  banners  of  a  similar  colour  and  similarly 
inscribed  stuck  round  it.  The  walls  are  filled  with  pictorial 
representations  of  the  holy  places  of  Islam,  including  the  city 
of  David.  In  this  picture-gallery  red,  green,  and  yellow  are 
the  most  prominent  colours.  There  is  also  no  want  of  silver 
leaf  and  Dutch  gold.  Mount  Sinai  and  other  sacred  moun- 
tains as  depicted  resemble  a  mound  erected  by  white  ants. 
The  minarets  make  one  think  of  gibbets.  The  sacred 
temples  appear  like  tables,  and  their  domes  like  balls  rolling 
on   the   upper  edges  of  the  tables.      The   palms  are  like 


A  BURIAL  PLACE.  105 

branched  candlesticks;  hell,  paradise,  and  the  river  of  life 
like  the  card  of  a  compass. 

In  the  corner  of  the  sanctuary  stands  a  wax  candle  as  long 
and  thick  as  an  elephant's  tusk.  Beside  it  gapes  a  crocodile's 
mouth,  while  the  rib  of  a  gigantic  fish  menaces  visitors  like 
a  drawn  sword.  Attached  to  the  roof  are  a  number  of  inter- 
lacing cords,  and  from  these  as  from  the  branches  of  a 
Christmas-tree  are  suspended  various  glass  lamps,  little  ships, 
ostrich  eggs  (which  were  also  hung  up  in  their  temples  and 
sanctuaries  by  the  ancient  Egyptians),  but  above  all  num- 
berless little  bundles  of  sacred  earth  from  Mecca  carefully 
wrapped  up  in  sugar-loaf  form. 

We  quit  the  most  holy  place,  and  take  a  look  at  the  court 
and  all  that  belongs  to.  it,  the  niches  for  prayer,  and  the 
graves  of  the  favoured  dead,  who  must  sleep  in  this  conse- 
crated earth  a  more  blessed  sleep  than  the  common  herd  who 
people  the  graveyard  without;  and  in  passing  out  we  cast  a 
parting  glance  at  the  little  room,  from  which  we  hear  the 
sound  of  the  strokes  of  a  schoolmaster's  cane  and  the  cries  of 
his  young  pupils.  For  schools  and  other  foundations  are  often 
connected  with  these  spots.  But  who  was  the  great  man 
to  whom  such  a  mausoleum  has  been  built,  and  such  rever- 
ence is  paid  ?  He  was,  according  to  Mohammedan  ideas,  a 
saint,  who  was  endowed  by  God  during  his  life  (or  perhaps 
only  after  his  death)  with  miraculous  powers  as  a  compen- 
sation for  his  weak  intellect,  and  who  is  accordingly  regarded 
as  a  "favourite  of  God."  In  godless  Europe,  except  in  some 
districts  such  as  Switzerland,  where  the  idiots  enjoy  a  high 
degree  of  respect,  individuals  of  this  class  are  called  fools  and 
imbeciles. 

A  BURIAL-PLACE. 

Not  far  from  this  sanctuary,  on  the  border  of  the  desert, 
on  the  dividing  line  between  living  nature  and  dead,  is  the 
place  allotted  to  those  who  have  passed  from  life  to  death. 
No  wall  incloses  the  wide  field,  which  is  rather  to  be  called 
a  city  of  the  dead  than  a  graveyard.    For,  beside  the  mounds 


106  UPPER  EGYPT. 

of  earth  and  low  flat  gravestones,  many  considerable  struc- 
tures rise  into  the  air;  mausoleums,  chapels,  and  mosques  for 
the  numerous  miracle-working  saints  and  other  estimable 
God-favoured  men,  and  in  addition  to  these  buildings  a 
number  of  dwelling-houses  where  mourning  families  spend 
some  days  and  nights,  especially  at  the  time  of  the  great  feasts 
beside  the  resting-place  of  their  beloved  dead.  No  living 
green  thing,  no  fragrant  flower,  adorns  the  grave  in  the  desert. 
Instead  of  a  wreath  a  palm  branch  stuck  in  the  grave  in  those 
days  of  mourning  bespeaks  a  pure  love  and  faith  unconquered 
by  death  itself 

The  army  of  the  dead  of  all  times  and  of  all  countries  in 
which  the  language  of  the  Koran  is  heard,  is  marshalled 
by  the  Prophet  in  orderly  array,  ready  to  stand  armed  in  the 
faith  before  the  Judge  of  the  other  world.  The  dead  champion 
of  Islam  always  lies  with  his  head  inclined  to  the  right  in  such 
a  manner  that  his  face  looks  towards  Mecca,  the  town  which 
stands  at  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  of  all  earths,  that  is,  of 
all  the  heaventy  bodies.  The  Egyptian,  Turk,  and  Moghrebin 
look  to  the  south-east;  the  Tartar  looks  to  the  south;  the 
Indian  to  the  west;  the  inhabitant  of  Sudan  to  the  east.  All 
grave-stones  are  laid  in  the  same  direction,  and  to  show 
that  the  corpse  has  had  the  proper  position  given  to  it,  the  spot 
beneatli  which  the  head  lies  is  marked  by  some  external  sign, 
for  example,  a  turban  carved  in  stone,  an  upright  stone,  slab, 
or  merely  a  heap  of  stones,  some  wands  stuck  in  the  ground, 
and  so  forth,  and  often  the  place  of  the  feet  is  correspondingly 
indicated.  As  if  to  make  up  for  the  want  of  a  coflin,^  the 
grave-stone  is  made  in  the  form  of  one.  It  is  oblong  in  form, 
and  has  a  rounded  or  sharp-edged  longitudinal  ridge  for  men, 
and  a  longitudinal  depression  for  women.  The  inscription, 
which  gives  some  details  regarding  the  person  lying  beneath, 
concludes  with  an  invitation  to  pray  a  fatha  over  him: 

For  his  sake  a  Fatha  ! 


^  The  corpse  is  not  inclosed  in  a  coffin,  but  is  placed  in  a  kind  of  vault  cut  in 
the  side  of  the  grave  at  bottom. 


CHAPTER    II. 
TKAYELLING    BY    LAND    AND    EIVEE. 

PEEPARATIONS. 

In  order  to  make  a  journey  of  a  few  days  in  the  valley  of 
the  Upper  Nile,  one  requires  something  more  than  the  quarter 
of  an  hour  between  resolve  and  starting  that  is  sufficient  for 
an  active  German  gymnast,  who  is  about  to  set  out  on  a  tour 
in  the  provinces  of  the  Fatherland,  and  at  the  end  of  that 
brief  space  of  time  stands  ready  for  the  tramp  with  his  travel- 
ling wallet  by  his  side,  and  two  or  three  thalers  in  his  pocket; 
setting  out  in  such  a  way  one  can  go  as  a  begging- pilgrim, 
and  knock  at  the  door  of  every  farm-house  on  the  road. 
Here  there  are  no  houses  of  reception  or  entertainment  where 
a  man  can  have  for  his  money  a  furnished  room,  a  bed,  food, 
and  drink.  Such  a  thing  is  quite  foreign  to  the  ideas  of 
Islam  and  its  Bedouin  hospitality.  An  Arabic  inn  in  the 
European  sense  is  not  found  even  in  the  largest  towns.  Estab- 
lishments of  this  kind  present  nothing  but  an  empty  room, 
the  traveller  having  to  provide  his  own  food  and  bed.  In 
such  circumstances  a  journey  by  land  must  take  another  form 
than  in  the  land  of  the  Franks — even  the  smallest  assumes 
more  or  less  of  the  character  of  an  expedition. 

Since  the  termination  of  our  journey  lies  in  the  narrow 
Nile-valley  of  Upper  Egypt  (in  the  Thebais,  in  the  first 
place,  or  district  of  the  city  of  Thebes  of  old  renown,  corre- 
sponding to  the  present  mudirieh  of  Keneh),  and  since  this 
valley  is  nowhere  broader  than  from  5  to  10  miles,  and 
consequently  no  part  of  it  far  from  the  river,  the  most  con- 
venient and  common  mode  of  travel  is  by  water.  We  have 
no  hopes  of  a  steamer,  as  these  stop  only  at  the  larger  towns, 
and  have  no  certain  times  for  arriving  and  departing.  To 
hire  a  vessel  for  ourselves,  since  there  is  not  a  large  company 
of  us,  would  be  very  expensive,  and  we  would  also  like  to 


108  UPPER  EGYPT. 

take  for  once  a  trip  in  tlie  same  way  as  the  native  citizen. 
We  proceed  accordingly  to  the  landing-place  to  see  if  we  can 
secure  a  passage,  and  soon  find  a  well-laden  craft  that  is  to 
sail  "to-morrow  if  it  please  God."  We  hasten  home  and 
hastily  collect  such  things  as  are  absolutely  necessary,  namely, 
a  carpet,  cushions,  coverings,  bread  and  biscuit,  clarified 
butter,  flesh,  cheese,  onions,  salt,  coflTee,  spirits  or  wine,  pease, 
rice,  dates,  and  fresh  fruits,  wood  or  coals,  tobacco,  and  also 
cooking,  eating,  and  smoking  utensils,  with  the  necessary 
bags,  chests,  and  boxes. 

THE  EMBARKATION. 

We  get  our  baggage  on  board  by  earliest  morn,  with  the 
assistance  of  a  pack-donkey,  but  do  not  find  the  master  of 
the  vessel,  who  does  not  turn  up  by  noon  even,  nor  yet  till 
late  in  the  day.  At  last,  however,  he  does  make  his  appear- 
ance, and  coolly  meets  our  angry  remonstrances  with  his, 
''Never  mind;  to-morrow  if  God  pleases."  But  as  we  cannot 
start  next  day  we  determine  to  look  out  for  another  oppor- 
tunity, and  have  our  baggage  again  brought  ashore.  Vessel 
after  vessel  sails  past  in  mid-stream,  and  call  as  we  may  they 
steer  proudly  onward  with  swelling  sail,  taking  advantage  of 
the  favourable  wind.  At  last  we  succeed  in  catching  a  small 
bark  without  a  cabin,  to  which  we  gladly  transfer  ourselves 
and  our  belongings,  and  endeavour  to  make  ourselves  com- 
fortable and  at  home  by  spreading  our  carpet  beneath  us,  or 
by  digging  out  an  abode  in  the  piled-up  cargo  of  corn  or  dates, 
protecting  ourselves  against  the  rays  of  the  sun  by  following 
the  shadow  of  the  huge  sail,  or  by  constructing  a  tent  of 
rugs,  wrappers,  and  spare  sails. 

The  above  means  of  travelling  is  only  a  make-shift;  the 
Arabic  public  that  make  long  voyages  use  the  dahabiyeh,  a 
vessel  with  a  cabin.  These  vessels  are  constructed  on  the 
model  of  a  floating  house;  but  the  house,  which  is  built  to  rest 
upon  the  ship's  bottom,  does  not  occupy  the  middle,  as  it 
appears  in  fancy  drawings  of  Noah's  ark,  nor  as  it  did  in  the 
ships  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  (which,  strangely  enough,  have 


THE  EMBARKATION.  109 

no  resemblance  to  those  of  the  present  time,  not  even  in  the 
sail);  it  occupies  the  after  half  of  the  vessel.  As  a  forty  days' 
or  even  a  single  hour's  rain  is  in  these  regions  and  in  these 
days  an  improbability  a  ridged  roof  can  easily  be  dispensed 
with,  and  accordingly  the  roof  of  the  house  takes  the  form  of 
an  open  platform.  The  fore-part  of  the  vessel  carries  the 
rigging,  the  simple  mast,  the  slender  yard  swinging  round  its 
top,  and  the  huge  trapezoidal  sail,  which,  during  a  stoppage 
of  any  length,  is  fastened  round  the  yard  in  undulating 
folds.  The  communication  with  the  platform  and  the  beaked 
stern  is  effected  by  a  plank  that  is  placed  like  the  scaffold 
used  in  rough-casting  a  house,  running  externally  along  the 
flanks  of  the  cabin,  from  which  a  single  false  step  would  pre- 
cipitate a  person  into  the  stream.  During  the  voyage  the 
captain  of  the  vessel  stations  himself  aft  upon  the  platform 
with  the  long  tiller  in  his  hand,  so  that  he  can  keep  his 
eye  on  the  crew  while  they  are  occupied  about  the  rigging 
in  the  forepart  of  the  vessel  below.  The  crew  are  the 
more  ready  to  obey  his  commands  from  the  fact  that  he 
usually  combines  the  dignity  of  captain  with  that  of  head 
of  the  family,  those  under  his  direction  being  generally 
his  brothers,  cousins,  children,  and  grand-children.  For  the 
smaller  class  of  vessels  of  this  kind  a  crew  of  three  or  four 
men  is  considered  sufficient,  in  cases  of  difficulty  the  friendly 
aid  of  the  passengers  being  called  in  and  immediately  given, 
partly  from  self-interest,  partly  because  the  bargain  is  so 
made  at  starting. 

The  more  fortunate  among  mortals  when  travelling  in  the 
cradle-country  of  mankind  make  use  of  saloon- vessels  built 
on  the  same  principle,  but  much  more  handsomely  fitted  up. 
These  vessels  alone  deserve  the  name  of  dahabiyeh,  that  is, 
"little  golden  ship"  (though  the  name  may  also  be  derived 
from  sahah,  to  go  or  move).  In  these  the  dingy  cabins  are  con- 
verted into  fine  saloons,  fitted  up  with  everything  which  the 
luxurious  son  of  northern  civilization  has  accustomed  himself 
to  require;  the  platform  has  become  a  pavilion,  on  which  the 
consumptive  foreigner  from  a  colder  clime  drinks  greedily 
into  his  damaged  lungs  the  air  warmed  by  the  winter  sun 


110  UPPER  EGYPT. 

of  the  south,  while  in  spite  of  wind  and  tide  a  crew  of  rowers 
urges  the  light  galley  to  any  point  it  is  desired  to  reach. 

The  public  has  little  opportunity  for  availing  itself  of  the 
results  achieved  in  this  age  of  steam,  since  a  regular  river 
passenger  service  is  not  yet  organized.  An  attempt  was 
indeed  made  some  years  ago  to  set  agoing  such  a  scheme  by 
the  Viceregal  River  Steam  Navigation  Co.  of  the  day.  The 
fare  charged  was  small,  viz.  about  four  shillings  per  day,  or 
what  was  the  same  thing,  per  mudirieh.  But  even  that  was  too 
much  for  the  common  people,  who  continued  to  sail  as  before 
in  their  slow-moving  dahabiyeh  along  with  their  baggage, 
which  they  cannot  let  out  of  their  sight,  so  suspicious  are 
they,  while  they  do  not  know  the  value  of  time.  Accordingly 
the  company,  like  the  post-office,  worked  at  a  loss  on  account 
of  not  being  sufficiently  patronized  by  the  public,  and  soon 
gave  up  its  regular  passages.  The  principles  of  political 
economy  are  unknown  in  Egypt,  and  there  was  no  thought 
of  persevering  in  spite  of  loss.  At  present  regular  trips  are 
made  by  the  Nile  steamers  only  during  the  winter  months 
for  the  rich  travellers  from  Europe.  Still  the  river  is  con- 
tinually navigated  by  a  great  many  steamers,  which  are  em- 
ployed for  government  purposes,  and  receive  occasional  passen- 
gers. The  crew,  including  the  captain  and  engine-driver,  is 
entirely  composed  of  natives,  who  have  emancipated  them- 
selves from  their  teachers  in  a  gratifying  manner,  yet  not 
without  a  previous  mingling  of  the  Anglo-Frankish  and  the 
Arabic  element.  This  is  seen  in  the  narrow  Frankish  trousers 
and  bare  feet  of  the  sailors,  in  the  European  uniform  com- 
bined with  the  general  unbuttoned  state  and  red  slippers  of 
the  captain,  and  in  the  Anglo-Arabic  words  of  command,  such 
as  "stop,"  ''halfy  speed,"  ''turn  head,"  fcc,  which  an  un- 
initiated scribe  could  never  unriddle. 

All  kinds  of  craft  navigate  the  Nile  besides  these — larger 
and  smaller  cargo  boats  without  cabins,  great  black  tow-boats 
forming  long  lines  behind  the  steamers,  ferry-boats,  hshing- 
boats,  and  rafts  consisting  of  clay  jars  with  handles  fastened 
together;  at  the  present  day,  however,  the  light  and  portable 
papyrus  boats,  once  so  celebrated,  are  no  longer  seen. 


A  VOYAGE  ON   THE  NILE.  Ill 

A    VOYAGE    ON    THE    NILE. 

Thus  we  glide  over  the  stream  of  streams.  It  is  the  height 
of  summer,  the  period  when  the  fresh  north  wind  that  then 
prevails  drives  the  little  vessel  with  bellying  sail  southwards 
through  the  flood  now  swollen  with  tropic  rains.  We  revel 
in  contemplation  of  the  landscapes  that  fly  past  us  and  rivet 
our  attention  less  by  richness  and  brilliancy  than  by  their 
strange  solemnity.  Bare  steep  banks  of  soft  clay  with  beau- 
tifully regular  strata  alternate  with  gentler  slopes,  now 
clothed  in  a  uniform  manner  with  sown  plants,  now  pro- 
ducing in  separate  clusters  a  natural  growth  of  herbs  which 
serve  as  pasture.  At  one  time  the  steep  bank  is  on  the 
right  at  another  on  the  left  side,  or,  as  the  native  always 
expresses  himself,  on  the  east  or  the  west  side;  it  is  always 
at  the  point  where  the  strongest  current  is,  and  may  change 
with  this  in  the  course  of  time.  The  steep  bank,  with  the 
land  next  adjoining  it,  always  stands  high  and  dry  above  the 
river  and  the  inundated  country,  even  when  the  river  is  at 
its  highest,  and  is  picturesquely  dotted  with  palm  groves, 
often  also  with  towns  and  villages;  but  where  it  is  not  pro- 
tected by  blocks  and  dams  of  stone  it  is  always  in  danger 
of  being  undermined  and  washed  away  by  the  summer  flood. 
The  valley-bottom  is  everywhere  arable  land ;  it  usually  ex- 
hibits a  level  surface,  though  on  the  outer  edge  towards  the 
desert  it  is  generally  somewhat  depressed.  From  the  surface  of 
the  stream,  however,  the  eye  cannot  reach  far  beyond  the  bank, 
the  more  distant  stretches  being  hidden  by  herbaceous  stems, 
trees,  and  bushes.  From  the  evergreen  surface  of  the  valley, 
which  is  rich  in  cultivated  fields  but  without  meadows,  rise 
on  elevated  points  many  small  scattered  palm  groves,  and 
behind  these  we  may  usually  conjecture  human  habitations 
to  exist,  a  farm,  a  village,  or  a  small  town.  We  make  the 
same  conjecture  when  a  great  number  of  vessels  have  brought 
to  at  any  place,  and  the  slender  daughters  and  sturdy  wives 
of  the  peasantry  are  going  up  and  down  the  steep  pathway 
on  the  bank,  balancing  the  heavy  earthen  jars  on  their  heads. 
They  form  along  with  the  bathing  buffaloes,  and  the  shadoof 


112  UPPER  EGYPT. 

men  raisinor  water  from  the  river,  the  inevitable  fio^ures  in 
every  Nile  landscape. 

The  river  god,  periodically  causing  his  waters  to  overflow, 
has  permitted  few  of  the  Egyptian  founders  of  cities  to  settle 
immediately  beside  his  bed.  The  greater  number  of  the 
eminences  that  rise  above  the  level  of  the  valley,  and 
stubbornly  withdraw  themselves  from  his  annual  bounties, 
are  generally  artificial,  and  are  as  a  rule  only  sufficient  to 
serve  as  sites  for  farms,  villages,  and  hamlets;  the  roots  of  a 
town  of  any.  size,  a  town  that  would  have  occupied  a  great 
part  of  the  comparatively  small  area  of  cultivable  soil,  had 
only  the  ever  dry  desert  soil  wherein  to  develop.  Still  the 
town-dweller,  though  thus  repelled,  has  dug  for  the  period 
of  inundation  a  channel  which  conducts  the  sweet  flood,  with 
all  that  therein  lives  and  moves,  quietly  and  safely  into  the 
very  heart  of  the  town,  so  that  for  a  few  months  he  may  draw 
from  it  refreshment  and  new  strength,  like  the  poor  desert 
plant  from  the  single  shower  of  winter.  For  the  remainder 
of  the  year  he  must  send  crowds  of  porters  and  beasts  of 
burden  in  order  to  avail  himself  of  the  boon  conveyed  by 
the  distant  stream. 

As  we  proceed  our  attention  is  forcibly  attracted  to  the 
banks  of  sand  or  clay  in  the  stream  and  at  the  edge  of  it, 
which,  now  when  the  summer  is  at  its  height,  are  becoming 
more  and  more  covered  by  the  water,  while  in  winter  and 
early  summer  they  lie  bare  in  great  stretches.  They  form  a 
rendezvous  for  innumerable  water-fowl,  from  the  pelican, 
the  crane,  the  heron  and  the  marabout,  down  to  the  lapwing 
and  sandpiper.  In  the  midst  of  these  the  great  vulture,  the 
little  vulture,  and  the  raven  feed  peaceably  together  on  some 
piece  of  stranded  carrion.  Nor  is  it  impossible  for  us  to  see 
there  the  sacred  crocodile  sunning  himself  The  countryman, 
however,  is  not  deterred  by  that  fact  from  planting  the  banks 
with  melons  and  cucumbers  as  soon  as  the  water  withdraws 
and  leaves  them  uncovered. 

At  the  edge  of  the  valley  on  both  sides,  now  at  some 
distance,  now  abutting  perpendicularly  on  the  river,  rise  the 
mountains,  a  term  equivalent  to  desert,  whitish-gray,  treeless. 


A  VOYAGE   ON   THE   NILE.  113 

without  verdure,  almost  without  soil.  These  mountains, 
which  are  calcareous  in  composition,  belong  on  both  sides  of 
the  valley  to  the  tertiary  formation;  at  Assouan  (Syene), 
in  the  southern  part  of  Egypt,  they  first  become  formed  of 
primary  rocks,  especially  syenite.  High  up,  the  precipitous 
rocky  walls  are  often  penetrated  by  great  numbers  of  regular 
quadrangular  holes  like  windows,  along  with  natural  clefts 
and  crevices,  where  now  only  the  creatures  of  the  air  fly  in  and 
out.  But,  strange  fact !  man  in  the  form  of  mummies  has  dwelt 
here  for  thousands  of  3^ears,  and  has  selected  these  inaccessible 
tombs  as  eternal  resting-places,  here  at  least  deeming  himself 
safe  from  the  profane  investigations  of  treasure-digging 
Epigoni.  But  in  many  places  at  the  foot  of  these  desert 
mountains  temple -palaces  with  splendid  pillared  halls, 
gigantic  statues,  richly  painted  and  sculptured  walls  extend 
afar,  bearing  noble  testimony  to  the  mighty  minds  of  the 
primeval  dwellers  in  the  land.  Another  and  intellectually 
poorer  time  has  built  churches  and  convents  on  and  with  their 
ruins;  while  above  them  stand  mud  heaps  hollowed  out  to 
serve  as  the  dwellings  of  the  race  of  modern  Troglodytes. 
Thousands  of  years  are  thus  piled  above  each  other. 

Not  less  pleasure  and  delight  are  experienced,  especially 
in  a  clear  still  night  with  the  moon  at  full,  when  the  stream 
is  high,  and  the  vessel  glides  downwards  assisted  by  the 
splashing  stroke  of  the  oars,  accompanied  with  the  peaceful 
sound  of  the  monotonous  songs  of  the  crew.  Among  the 
passengers  or  the  crew  an  accomplished  singer  may  always 
be  found  to  lead,  beginning  either  with  a  popular  song  or 
one  improvised  by  himself  for  the  occasion,  and  being  followed 
after  every  verse  by  the  chorus  of  the  rowers.  The  songs 
are  such  as  the  following: — 

"  I  entered  your  garden,  best  beloved, 

And  wished  to  pluck  dates. 
By  the  thorn  of  the  ripe,  ah,  the  ripe  fruit,  dearest  child, 
Was  my  finger  wounded." 


Or, 


"I  enter  the  garden, 

And  the  rose  shadowed  me. 


114?  UPPER   EGYPT. 

Oh,  my  mistress,  lead  me  about 

And  be  gracious  to  me. 
Oh  leave  me  no  longer  alone  and  forsaken." 

Less  poetic  is  the  song, 

"The  gardener  has  been  confined  because  he  has  stolen  pomegranates," 

and  the  invocation  of  saints,  such  as 

"Oh,  God!  oh  man  of  Damanhur,  &c." 

With  or  without  sense,  varied  or  the  same  for  hours,  the 
song  soon  causes  a  kind  of  intoxicated  excitement  which 
kindles  a  sort  of  demonic  energy  in  the  rowers,  so  that  the 
power  of  poetry  acts  like  that  of  steam.  Between  whiles 
a  disciple  of  Clio  with  enviable  eloquence,  such  as  is  here 
naturally  cultivated  among  people  of  all  ranks,  narrates  his 
adventures  or  all  kinds  of  drolleries  and  tales  for  the  com- 
mon entertainment.  Many  also,  while  themselves  out  of 
reach  in  mid-stream,  find  a  lively  source  of  amusement  in 
hurling  at  the  boat-men,  the  peasants,  and  especially  the 
water-raisers  ashore,  a  flood  of  the  choicest  abuse  in  which 
the  Arabic  language  is  so  rich,  while  these  send  back  every 
epithet  with  cent,  per  cent,  interest — all  in  mere  harmless 
humour,  forming  a  scene  quite  similar  to  those  amusing 
colloquies  between  the  students  and  the  miners  of  the  Black 
Forest  in  the  Neckarhalde  at  Tubingen.  Similar  contests  are 
related  to  have  taken  place  among  the  ancient  Egyptian 
women  when  on  the  pilgrimage  to  Bubastis. 

The  Nile  voyage  is  quite  different  during  winter  and  early 
summer,  when  the  feeble  waters  glide  languidly  along  and 
not  a  breath  of  air  moves,  or  what  wind  there  is  is  contrary 
and  unsteady  and  idly  sports  with  the  flapping  sail.  Against 
this  state  of  matters  nothing  avails  but  the  unspeakable 
patience  of  the  Mussulman  with  his  trust  in  Providence. 
Fired  with  the  thousand-fold  repetition  of  the  name  of  Allah 
and  his  prophet  (Ya  Muhammed,  sdla'ale,  '*0h,  Mohammed, 
pray  to  him"),  the  crew  drag  by  a  long  rope  the  floating  burden, 
marching  along  the  pathless  bank  with  its  endless  windings, 
through  the  bushes  and  over  the  hollow  projecting  ledges  of 


A   VOYAGE   ON   THE   NILE.  115 

the  clayey  slope  that  are  hurled  downwards  by  the  slightest 
footstep,  and  stopped  by  the  cuttings  made  in  the  bank  for  irri- 
gation purposes,  while  still  the  wished-for  point  that  seemed 
so  near  is  far  from  being  reached.  Contrary  winds  may 
compel  them  to  bring  to  for  days,  even  for  weeks,  at  a  desert 
part  of  the  bank,  far  from  civilization  and  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  robbers.  And  when  at  last  a  good  strong  breeze 
takes  pity  on  the  traveller  the  pilot  steers  the  vessel  right 
upon  a  sand-bank,  from  which  it  cannot  be  got  afloat 
again  till  the  boatmen  have  been  heaving  at  it  for  hours 
with  their  Titan  shoulders  to  the  rhythmic  accompaniment 
of  their  Eleza,  ya  eleza. 

The  genial  winter's  sun  quickly  accomplishes  his  short 
course,  and  already  the  day's  work  that  has  advanced  the 
vessel  so  little  is  at  an  end.  Darkness,  and  even  in  these 
latitudes  a  very  sensible  degi'ee  of  cold,  drives  everybody  to 
some  lurking  place,  in  which,  cowering  under  his  mantle  or 
rug,  he  sleeps  through  the  long  winter  night  till  roused  by 
the  nipping  frost  of  morning.  Whoever  has  hired  the  after 
cabin  is  the  most  fortunate,  for  although  it  is  little  suited 
to  freedom  of  movement  it  yet  affords  a  close  shelter;  the 
youngsters,  who  have  crept  into  the  hold  under  the  deck, 
between  the  bales  of  goods,  and  among  rats  and  mice,  are 
likewise  not  badly  off';  but  the  man  that  has  taken  up  his 
quarters  upon  the  narrow  wooden  bench  of  the  main  cabin 
is  indeed  to  be  commiserated.  The  folded  wraps  beneath 
him  soon  slide  gradually  outwards,  drawing  his  body  with 
them;  and  no  sooner  does  he  fall  asleep  than  he  has  to  start 
up  again  as  his  centre  of  gravity  reaches  the  edge  of  the 
bench.  At  the  same  time  the  warm  covering  slips  offj  and 
the  icy  wind  blows  through  the  holes  and  crevices  that  are 
never  wanting  in  the  half  broken  window-shutters  right 
upon  his  naked  members.  Only  the  native  peasant  and  the 
Berberin  or  Nubian,  indifferent  alike  to  the  glowing  heat  or 
the  winter's  frost,  is  able,  enveloped  in  his  plush,  to  fall 
asleep  on  the  open  deck  or  platform.  At  the  period  of  early 
summer,  when  the  south  and  west  winds  prevail  (Nau  and 
Samum),  a  voyage  on  the  Nile  is  torture  by  day  on  account 


116  UPPER  EGYPT. 

of  the  oppressive  heat  and  the  contrary  winds,  by  night  on 
account  of  the  vermin  and  the  frightful  row  that  the  rats 
and  mice  kick  up.  Whoever,  therefore,  can  manage  it  takes 
his  trip  at  the  height  of  summer  when  the  Nile  is  highest. 

EATING   AND   DRINKING  ON   BOARD. 

Amid  such  observations,  considerations,  and  recollections, 
from  which  a  general  impression  remains  to  us  of  the  mono- 
tonous character  of  the  landscape,  the  fauna  and  flora,  and 
the  people,  time  passes  on,  and  hunger  begins  to  make  itself 
felt.     One  man  begins  to  empty  his  sack,  in  which  he  had 
stowed  away  his  provisions,  and  now  every  one  is  called  by 
name  and  urgently  invited  to  join  him.     It  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  invitation  is  a  serious  matter  for  him,  even  though 
his  store  were  only  spread  out  for  the  first  time.     On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  a  common  understanding  that  those  first 
invited  ask  their  former  host  to  join  them  at  another  time, 
namely,  when  his  provender  is  all  gone;  or  every  one  contri- 
butes something  to  the  common  meal  in  the  manner  of  a 
picnic.     Thus  the  whole  company  eat  together  or  in  groups, 
but  never  alone,  that  would  be  un- Arabic.    By  this  hospitable 
practice  a  certain  brotherliness  is  soon  developed  among  those 
on  board;  differences  of  rank  cease,  and  intimacies  are  formed 
that  last  perhaps  for  years.     To  have  eaten  salt  and  bread 
together  is  sufficient   ground  for  avoiding  or  terminating 
quarrels.     To  be  sure  an  excellent  field  is  thus  afforded  to 
parasites,  who  flourish  greatly  in  this  country;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  prudent  host  prefers  to  keep  costly  dainties 
at  home.    Any  one  who  wishes  to  cook  sets  his  sauce-pan  on 
the  clay  vessel  full  of  earth  that  serves  as  the  caboose  and 
stands  in  the  fore  part  of  the  vessel.    But  when  the  vessel  is 
moored  to  the  bank,  as  is  done  in  the  evening,  every  mess 
does  its  cooking  ashore,  gathering  dry  reeds,  stems  of  plants, 
and  brushwood,  and  often  plundering  the  neighbouring  fields 
of  their  fruits  and  vegetables  to  supplement  their  meal. 

Feeling  thirsty,  we  let  down  a  pitcher  with  a  cord  into  the 
stream.     Before  we  set  it  to  our  lips,  however,  aU  kinds  of 


A  JOUKNEY   BY   LAND.  117 

considerations  crowd  upon  us:  the  water  is  turbid  and  muddy; 
we  have  already  by  means  of  the  microscope  detected  in  it 
animalcula,  small  Crustacea,  and  minute  worms;  we  have  seen 
cattle  bathing  in  it,  and  men  washing  their  bodies  and  their 
clothes  above  our  vessel,  and  emptying  various  matters  into 
the  stream;  the  carcass  of  an  ox  is  floating  past  with  a 
raven  standing  on  it  and  pecking  it;  and  such  ingredients  have 
been  received  by  the  stream  from  the  whole  of  the  immense 
country  above.  Shall  we  drink  a  mixture  of  the  filth  of  the 
whole  of  North  Africa !  We  venture;  the  Son  of  the  Sun  has 
done  so  before  us,  and  all  his  sons  continue  to  do  so  up  to  the 
present  day,  and  are  quite  healthy  notwithstanding.  And 
indeed  it  is  pure  nectar;  the  soft  cool  water  so  refreshes  us 
that  we  quite  agree  with  the  natives  of  the  country,  especially 
those  from  the  desert,  who  consider  a  draught  of  Nile- water 
one  of  the  greatest  blessings  the  world  can  give. 

A  JOURNEY  BY   LAND. 

In  taking  a  trip  entirely  by  land  one  has  the  advantage 
of  not  being  dependent  upon  the  wind  and  the  humour  of 
the  crew,  and  of  often  being  able  to  take  a  shorter  route  to 
his  destination,  though  a  land  journey  certainly  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  being  more  fatiguing.  From  the  condition  of  the 
roads  the  only  means  of  travel  are  beasts  for  riding  and  for 
carrying  burdens,  i.e.  either  camels,  asses,  horses,  or  mules. 
A  person  can  only  go  short  distances  on  foot  from  the  neces- 
sity of  always  having  baggage  with  him.  Broad  highways 
there  are  none  in  this  region,  and  of  course  no  carriages, 
scarcely  even  a  donkey-cart  here  and  there.  However  suit- 
able the  camel  may  be  for  riding  in  the  desert,  riding  on  it 
in  the  cultivated  Nile  valley  is  not  pleasant.  Sitting  aloft 
on  a  camel,  we  move  along  the  narrow  path  on  the  bank 
which  scarcely  allows  two  such  animals  to  pass,  certainly  not 
if  they  are  carrying  loads.  One  beast  tries  to  get  before 
another  in  front  of  it,  or  we  are  met  by  a  herd  of  these  or 
other  animals.  The  camel  on  which  we  are  riding  is  pushed 
close  to  the  edge  of  the  path,  where  there  is  a  steep  slope  or 


118  UPPER  EGYPT. 

a  deep  hole.  Perhaps  we  have  to  take  a  still  narrower  field- 
path  which  suddenly  strikes  off  right  across  the  fields,  down 
the  slope  of  the  embankment,  over  a  clay  field  dried  into 
great  lumps,  or  over  a  wet  and  slippery  patch  of  mire.  Here 
there  is  a  rivulet,  at  which  the  beast  would  fain  drink,  there 
a  tree,  a  corn-field,  or  a  bush,  towards  which  it  greedily 
stretches  its  neck. 

The  smaller  and  lighter  donkey,  with  its  nimble  trot,  is 
much  better  suited  for  this  district.  No  path  is  too  narrow 
for  it,  no  way  too  steep,  and  it  can  be  guided  by  the  rein 
without  any  driver.  A  good  Nile  donkey  trots  and  gallops 
for  miles;  it  is  distinguished  from  the  mountain  and  pack- 
donkey  as  the  dromedary  or  riding  camel  from  the  common 
camel.  The  ass  is  by  far  the  most  common  and  agreeable 
means  of  communication  in  the  whole  of  the  Egyptian  por- 
tion of  the  Nile  valley;  hardly  the  poorest  peasant  cares  to 
go  on  foot.  People  of  higher  rank  ride  higher,  using  a  white 
ass  of  the  genuine  Arabic  race  of  Nejd,  a  mule,  or  a  horse. 
The  ox  or  the  buffalo  is  not  yet  commonly  used  for  riding, 
as  in  the  Soudan,  though  here  peasant  boys  and  even  peasant 
women  have  begun  to  ride  them  to  the  field  or  to  the  water- 
ing-place. 

When  travelling  by  land  it  is  customary  to  take  a  siesta 
during  the  day  under  some  shady  tree  or  grove  where  there 
is  water;  at  night  the  practice  is  as  described  below.  It  is 
seldom  that  any  one  ventures  to  make  a  lonely  night  march, 
or  to  camp  out  by  night  in  the  fields,  as  is  the  custom  in  the 
desert,  where  there  is  no  danger;  this  would  give  robbers  and 
murderers  too  good  a  chance,  and  even  would  not  be  free  from 
danger  on  account  of  the  dogs  roaming  about  everywhere 
and  guarding  the  fields  and  farms. 

AN   INN. 

At  last  we  reach,  if  we  have  travelled  by  water,  the  haven 
of  our  destination;  we  disembark,  while  the  vessel  we  have 
chanced  to  catch  sails  farther  on.  We  load  our  baggage  on 
the  back  of  a  donkey  or  a  porter,  such  as  may  be  found  at 


AN   INN.  119 

all  the  more  important  landing-places,  and  ride  to  the  nearest 
chief  place.  There  we  take  up  our  quarters  in  the  public 
lodging-house  (caravanserai,  Arabic  Wehdleh)  if  there  is  one. 
It  is  merely  a  place  of  shelter,  where  one  can  get  a  roof  to 
cover  him  and  protect  him  from  the  terrors  of  night.  All 
thought  of  finding  in  it  comfort  even  approximating  to  what 
may  be  found  in  a  regular  Frankish  inn  we  have  long  ago 
discarded.  The  furniture  sufficient  for  a  night's  lodging 
according  to  Arabic  notions  we  have  ourselves  brought  with 
us,  namely,  a  carpet,  a  cushion,  a  rug  or  mantle.  The 
caravanserai  has  a  spacious  court  round  which,  on  the  ground 
floor  and  the  upper  story,  are  a  number  of  rooms;  these  are 
small  and  entirely  without  windows,  having  only  a  door 
which  opens  on  the  court,  or  in  the  upper  story  on  the  gallery 
which  runs  round  the  court.  Before  the  large  main  door, 
and  with  an  out-look  on  the  street,  sits  the  doorkeeper,  or  the 
goodman  of  the  house  here  serves  out  coffee  for  his  guests  or 
any  one  who  may  come,  coffee,  in  addition  to  water,  being 
the  only  refreshment  to  be  expected  in  this  establishment. 
For  our  table  we  have  ourselves  to  cater,  and  either  try  the 
productions  of  the  dirty  cook  in  the  market,  or  make  our 
servant  prepare  a  simple  meal  with  the  materials  contained 
in  our  travelling-bag,  our  fire-place  being  formed  with  two 
or  three  stones  in  a  sheltered  spot  in  the  court-yard,  or  in 
the  gallery.  At  nightfall  we  seek  our  rest  on  a  carpet 
spread  out  in  the  open  gallery,  or  if  it  is  winter,  withdraw 
into  our  little  room. 

Such  lodgmg-houses  exist  only  in  the  towns  and  larger 
market  villages.  If  we  find  none  such  we  must  have  recourse 
to  the  friendship  of  some  acquaintance,  or  to  some  one  to 
whom  we  are  recommended,  or  we  encamp,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  village  guardians,  on  an  open  place  in  front  of 
the  houses.  If  we  do  not  wish  to  do  that,  especially  when 
it  is  winter,  we  knock  boldly  at  the  door  of  the  village 
magistrate.  Without  being  exactly  an  innkeeper,  he  is 
bound  to  receive  strangers,  he  has  almost  every  day  to 
entertain  various  kinds  of  officials,  providing  food  for  them 
and  their  beasts,  and  he  is  not  allowed  to  ask  anything  for 


120  UPPER  EGYPT. 

SO  doing.  However,  he  takes  care  afterwards  to  repay  him- 
self with  the  moneys  that  his  servants  often  receive  from  the 
guests  (the  officials  as  a  rule  give  nothing),  and  takes  what 
meat,  fowls,  eggs,  &c.,  he  requires  now  from  one  member  of 
his  village  flock  now  from  another,  and  thus  prudently  shares 
the  burden  of  quartering  strangers. 

A  VILLAGE. 

After  dismounting  somewhere  and  drinking  some  coffee, 
either  as  a  ceremony  of  our  reception  or  for  refreshment,  we 
take  a  tour  through  the  village.  While  even  in  the  town 
the  lines  of  direction  of  the  streets  are  not  very  correct,  in 
the  village  there  is  in  this  matter  perfect  freedom.  The 
better  houses  of  the  country  people  differ  little  from  the 
buildings  that  the  provincial  town  offers;  they  are  clay-built 
blocks,  one-story  high,  without  windows,  and  pierced  with 


Pigeon  Houses. 

only  a  few  holes  for  light,  often  narrowing  towards  the  top 
in  the  ancient  style;  upon  them,  or  beside  them,  frequently 
rise  small  quadrangular  battlemented  towers  serving  as 
pigeon  houses.  The  house  of  the  common  Fellah  degenerates 
gradually  to  the  most  wretched  mud-hole,  compared  with 
which  a  nest  of  termites  is  a  work  of  art.  The  Fellah  does 
not  use  shaped  bricks  of  dried  clay,  which  give  to  a  structure 
a  neat  regular  appearance  and  sufficient  stability  for  this 


A   VILLAGE.  121 

rainless  district,  but  he  kneads  for  himself  a  hovel  out  of  the 
clay  left  by  the  Nile  in  every  hollow,  mixed  with  some  cut 
straw.  A  room  is  thus  formed,  which  may  be  entered  by 
creeping  through  a  hole.  It  is  covered  over  with  reeds,  straw 
mats,  and  rags.  Round  it  he  then  builds  a  wall  of  clay 
about  as  high  as  a  man,  which  incloses  a  yard.  Cylindrical 
hollow  spaces  (sllmaa)  are  let  into  the  wall  at  intervals  and 
serve  for  keeping  grain,  which  is  poured  into  them  from  above; 
these  were  also  in  use  among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Other 
similar  cavities  serve  as  a  pigeon  house,  a  fowl  house,  an 
oven,  and  a  cupboard,  or  the  same  purposes  are  served  by 
certain  columnar  structures  with  dome-shaped  tops,  which 
stand  detached  in  the  middle  of  the  court-yard.  In  particular 
there  is  seldom  wanting  a  thick  pillar  about  5  feet  high, 
having  on  the  top  a  large  round  platter- shaped  disk  of  clay 
with  a  high  border  round  the  outer  edge,  similar  to  a  pillar 
with  its  capital. 

That  is  the  fundamental  plan;  when  carried  farther  the 
walled-in  farm-building  is  divided  into  several  portions, 
such  as  stables,  sheds,  places  for  the  poultry,  especially  the 
pigeons  and  a  comparatively  small  portion  added  for  the 
people.  Commonly  only  a  small  part  of  the  house  is  covered; 
the  roofed  portion  being  for. winter,  while  in  summer  nothing 
but  the  blue  vault  of  heaven  is  over  people,  cattle,  and  grain. 
On  the  roof  and  the  crenellations  of  the  walls  promenade 
the  dogs,  which  in  the  village  have  become  domestic  animals, 
though  only  in  like  degree  with  the  cats;  the  relationship 
between  man  and  the  village  dog  is  still  very  cold.  The 
village  dog  is  not  quite  wild  and  masterless  like  the  town 
dog,  but  the  master  of  the  house  throws  him  some  scraps, 
for  the  sake  of  which  the  dog  remains  beside  the  house, 
watches  the  field,  barks  at  the  stranger,  and  guards  the 
house  from  sudden  attacks.  Besides  the  common  red-haired 
dog  the  Erment  dog,  a  fine  long-woolled  race,  with  a  thick 
head  and  similar  to  our  sheep-dog,  is  not  uncommon  in  our 
district.  It  was  formerly  introduced  by  the  French  con- 
querors, and  is  one  of  the  few  institutions  that  have  kept 
their  ground  since  their  time.     In  walking  through  the  fields 


122  UPPEK   EGYPT. 

a  person  has  to  be  on  his  guard  against  these  dogs,  which 
often  gather  in  a  pack  to  attack  a  strange  intruder. 

The  village  is  inhabited  by  the  Fellah^  that  is,  countryman, 
and  here  in  Upper  Egypt  by  a  variety  almost  as  dark  as  an 
Ethiopian,  which  has  remained,  comparatively  speaking,  very 
little  affected  by  the  international  race-crossings  through 
which  the  people  of  the  Pharaohs  has  gradually  passed.  The 
dress  of  the  peasant  of  Upper  Egypt  is  no  longer  the  blue 
cotton  shirt  of  the  inhabitant  of  the  lower  country,  which  at 
most  serves  him  for  an  under  garment;  but  a  wide  robe  of 
brown  unbleached  woollen  stuff,  the  sleeves  of  which,  wide 
enough  to  admit  his  w^hole  body,  hang  down  almost  to  his 
ankles.  This  race  is  very  well  formed,  almost  always  spare 
and  at  the  same  time  muscular  and  full  of  endurance.  The 
youth  of  both  sexes  have  as  a  rule  agreeable  and  even 
elegant  forms.  To  be  sure  old  age  comes  on  early,  and  a 
maiden  is  not  to  be  blamed  if  she  prefers  a  beardless  young 
fellow  as  a  husband,  or  a  man  if  he  courts,  when  he  can,  a 
mere  girl.  The  women  of  many  places  are  celebrated  far 
and  wide  for  their  good  looks;  those  of  Balas  for  instance, 
where  the  well-known  large  earthen  pitchers  for  carrying 
water — the  baldseh^SLre  made.  Indeed  a  slim,  brown  Fellah 
girl,  twelve  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  just  arrived  at  puberty, 
dozens  of  whom  stroll  every  evening  from  the  village  to  the 
river  for  water,  is  really  a  charming  sight,  as  she  balances 
upon  her  head  with  rare  dexterity  and  grace  the  above- 
mentioned  balds,  with  its  convex  bottom  and  eccentric 
centre  of  gravity,  carrying  herself  along  lightly  on  her  naked 
feet,  unhampered  by  anything  in  the  shape  of  a  shoe.  To 
be  sure  the  figure  is  seen  to  less  advantage  under  the  brown 
woollen  dress,  the  hulalieh,  than  under  the  thin  light-blue 
cotton  shift  of  the  Fellah  women  of  the  lower  country;  the 
veil  too  that  floats  down  over  the  back,  or  the  kerchief,  is 
apt  to  be  drawn  over  the  face  at  the  sight  of  a  man,  or  at 
least  a  corner  of  it  is  taken  into  the  mouth.  But  still  a 
finely  rounded  arm  adorned  with  bracelets  is  often  visible 
up  to  the  shoulder,  supporting  from  time  to  time  the  pitcher 
on  the  head,  and  the  greater  number  do  not  think  of  aping  the 


A   VILLAGE.  123 

"forbidden  ones,"  as  those  of  the  towns  must,  by  concealing 
their  faces.  Golden  ear-rings,  silver  nose-rings,  a  string  of 
beads  of  small  value  or  of  gold  coins,  a  silver  band  on  the 
upper  arm,  tattooing  of  a  blue  colour  on  the  face,  arms,  and 
hands  are  the  ornaments  that  even  the  poorer  peasant  women 
would  not  like  to  denj^  herself  In  later  life  those  Graces 
usually  became  frightfully  ugl}^;  the  nose-ring,  the  painting, 
the  now  unsparing  exhibition  of  the  naked  skin,  heighten 
the  shocking  sight.  The  full  beard  of  the  man,  which  early 
becomes  grizzled,  covers  and  conceals  the  wrinkled  features 
of  age  and  gives  him  the  venerable  appearance  of  the  sheikh. 
The  Fellah,  at  least  of  the  poorer  class,  is  almost  exclusively 
a  vegetarian,  and  pastures  his  tongue  mostly  on  coarse,  heavy, 
and  raw  substances.^  To  his  black  millet-bread  or  his  cakes  of 
unleavened  flour  he  eats  salt,  caraway,  garlic,  onions,  and 
other  vegetables,  raw  and  uncooked,  by  preference,  and  in 
addition  the  many  kinds  of  fruits  he  possesses,  especially 
dates  and  melons.  With  his  sharp  teeth  he  eats  into  the 
rind  of  the  doom-nut  and  the  stems  of  the  sugar-cane,  which 
lacerate  the  gums  of  a  person  unaccustomed  to  them  and 
make  them  bleed,  and  he  chews  grain  and  legumes  slightly 
roasted,  maize,  beans,  chick-peas,  and  half  ripe  wheat.  He 
does  not  allow  himself  many  dainties;  any  of  this  sort  that 
he  has,  such  as  milk,  eggs,  fowls,  pigeons,  or  cattle,  he  sells, 
though  on  a  few  days  of  the  year,  at  family  or  religious 
feasts,  when  impelled  by  religion,  he  does  allow  himself  the 
indulgence  of  a  good  piece  of  mutton.  Spirituous  liquors  he 
never  tastes.  It  is  only  with  tobacco  that  he  is  not  niggardly. 
A  wife  and  family  too  are  quite  indispensable  to  him,  he 
would  rather  starve,  and  aUow  those  dependent  on  him  to 
starve  also,  than  remain  unmarried.  From  the  political  pres- 
sure weighing  him  down,  he  cannot  easily  raise  himself  from 
his  condition  of  poverty,  and  from  indolence  he  has  no  great 

^  The  people  are  fond  of  telling  the  story  of  a  Fellah  whom  Napoleon  I.  is 
said  to  have  taken  with  him,  and  who  became  a  celebrated  general.  Becoming 
sick  he  tried  all  the  doctors  in  Europe  in  vain.  At  last  he  returned  to  Egypt, 
and  meeting  one  of  the  friends  of  his  youth  told  him  of  his  sufferings.  This 
friend  advised  him  to  fall  back  upon  his  old  Fellah  diet,  and  lo  and  behold, 
after  a  short  time  he  completely  recovered ! 


124  ,  UPPER   EGYPT. 

desire  to  do  so  (most  of  the  Fellahs  are  mere  day  labourers 
or  tenants,  not  land-owners) ;  yet  from  his  contentment  and 
domesticity  he  is  always  merry,  he  chats,  jokes,  and  sings,  is 
healthy,  and  incredibly  efficient  and  assiduous  in  working. 

The  Fellah  people  are  everywhere  held  in  the  lowest 
estimation  as  a  degenerate  race;  indeed  they  apply  to  them- 
selves the  degrading  names  of  "brood  of  the  Pharaohs"  and 
"Fellah."  Poverty  of  course  breeds  dirt;  in  an  earthen 
burrow  which  has  to  shelter  a  numerous  family,  which  has  a 
roof  consisting  of  rags,  which  stands  in  a  court-yard  where  all 
kinds  of  domestic  animals  and  children  mingle  pell-mell,  and 
which  at  the  same  time  serves  as  sitting-room  and  bed-room,  as 
kitchen,  dining-room,  and  stable,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that 
wall  and  floor  should  shine,  the  dishes  glance,  and  every  utensil 
be  in  its  proper  place.  The  curious  visitor  will  probably  find 
the  external  walls  thickly  plastered  with  cow-dung,  which 
serves  as  fuel  for  baking  and  cooking;  pot-bellied,  blear-eyed, 
naked  children,  with  flies  and  mosquitos  swarming  upon 
them,  are  creeping  about;  the  women  in  scanty  clothing  are 
catching  the  vermin  on  themselves,  while  the  men  and  boys 
of  the  house  are  stretched  on  the  ground  clothed  in  the 
single  woollen  garment  that  serves  them  for  both  a  summer 
and  a  winter  dress. 

A  general  view  of  the  village  shows  us  sights  of  the  same 
kind.  In  spite  of  all  the  oft-repeated  sanitary  ordinances 
carrion  of  many  kinds  still  lies  about  the  village  or  floats  in 
pools  and  canals;  the  Nile  is  still  regarded  as  the  most  suit- 
able burying-place  for  cattle;  refuse  and  rubbish,  with  inter- 
mingled animal  remains,  have  accumulated  till  they  form 
veritable  mountains  round  the  village,  and  the  hollows  between 
have  been  selected  as  cess-pools  for  the  commune,  the  houses 
never  possessing  such  conveniences. 

However,  let  us  recall  to  mind  the  filthy  yards  and  rooms, 
the  dung-heaps  and  puddles,  the  streets  only  passable  with  tall 
boots,  the  glazed  coat  sleeves  and  leather  hose  innocent  of 
washing,  the  natural  timidity  at  water  of  the  inhabitant  of 
an  out-of-the  way  village  in  our  own  country;  let  us  reflect 
that  animal  refuse  in  the  land  of  Egypt  is  quickly  consumed 


THE   OVERFLOW   OF   THE   NILE.  125 

by  hungry  dogs,  vultures,  and  insects,  and  then  completely 
and  quickly  dried  up  in  the  dry  hot  atmosphere;  that,  farther, 
the  Fellah,  as  a  Moslem,  washes  himself  five  times  a  day,  and 
in  addition  has  from  time  to  time  to  take  a  bath,  and  the 
comparison  may  prove  to  be  entirely  in  favour  of  the  poor 
decried  Fellah. 

In  many  respects  we  must  give  the  Fellah  even  a  high 
place.  Though  belonging  to  the  very  lowest  rank,  he  knows 
how  to  conduct  himself  with  propriety,  almost  with  polish,  in 
society;  he  may  be  often  rough,  but  he  is  never  rude  and 
boorish,  a  main  reason  for  this  being  that  he  never  gets  drunk. 
Compliments  flow  from  his  eloquent  tongue  till  they  verge 
on  flattery  and  falsehood.  He  is  entertaining,  witty,  full  of 
fancy,  good-humoured  in  ordinary  intercourse,  and  if  at  all 
well  treated;  but  he  is  mendacious,  deceitful,  avaricious,  fond 
of  begging,  and  even  thievish,  when  there  is  any  question  of 
yneuTti  and  tuumi.  Patiently,  like  the  camel,  he  bears  the 
burden  laid  upon  him;  but  if  it  seems  too  heavy  he  becomes 
stubborn  and  self-willed,  until  he  has  received  a  due  number 
of  official  blows  upon  the  soles  of  his  feet,  whereupon  he 
immediately  becomes  obedient  again  and  bends  slavishly 
before  his  Turkish  master,  his  superior  in  energy.  Such 
endurance  and  stubbornness  are  also  said  to  have  been  quali- 
ties of  his  ancestors  at  least  in  later  times. 

THE   COUNTRY   IN  THE   CIRCLE  OF  THE   YEAR. 

The  appearance  of  the  country,  like  that  of  its  inhabitants, 
is  for  a  visitor  from  the  North  new  and  strange,  quite  differ- 
ent indeed  from  that  of  any  other  on  the  face  of  the  earth, 
and  varying  radically  according  to  the  season  of  the  year. 
The  seasons,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  winter,  are  here  almost 
entirely  astronomical  conceptions;  this  division  and  succession 
is  not  known  to  agriculture,  scarcely  to  language,  or  at  least 
in  another  sense.     Let  us  follow  the  year  in  its  course. 

THE  OVERFLOW   OF  THE  NILE. 

According  to  the  most  ancient  Egyptian  mode  of  reckoning 
— and  Islam,  with  its  lunar  months,  quite  impracticable  for 


126  UPPER  EGYPT. 

agriculture,  has  not  been  able  to  effect  anything  against 
this  arrangement — the  year  begins  on  the  1st  of  the  Coptic 
month  Tut,  corresponding  to  the  11th  of  September,  when  the 
Nile  is  at  its  highest.  The  land  of  Egypt  is  now  a  fresh- 
water archipelago,  and  the  waters  cover  the  ground  like  the 
winter  snow  in  the  North,  spreading  their  blessing  over  the 
greater  portion  of  the  fields.  The  swollen  stream  has  flowed 
over  them,  but  not  destructively,  man  having  tamed  the  wild 
element  for  thousands  of  years.  The  great  main  artery,  full  to 
overflowing,  pours  its  nourishing  fluid  into  large,  deep,  lateral 
canals  constructed  by  the  hand  of  man,  which  reach  to  near, 
the  edge  of  the  desert,  and  sometimes  return  with  a  bend  to 
the  main  channel,  taking  advantage  of  the  fall  of  the  valley. 
At  intervals  the  canals  are  crossed  by  dams,  behind  which  the 
water  collects  and  flows  through  sluices  down  upon  the 
adjacent  land.  When  the  land  lying  behind  the  first  dam 
has  been  sufficiently  covered  by  the  overflow  from  the  river, 
an  opening  is  made  in  this  dam,  the  water  then  runs  along 
the  canal  to  the  next  dam,  overflows  the  district  belonging 
to  it,  and  so  on  and  on.  If  the  river  does  not  rise  sufficiently 
high,  as  is  the  case  in  many  years,  the  water  scarcely  reaches 
the  remotest  parts  of  the  valley,  which  accordingly  remain 
for  this  year  dry  and  fallow.  The  water  is  not  allowed  to 
touch  those  fields  upon  which  a  crop  is  still  standing  till  after 
harvest.  When  the  river  falls  the  fertilizing  water  is  still 
retained  for  some  time  on  the  field  by  damming  it  up. 

Scattered  over  the  inundated  country  there  are  a  number 
of  elevated  points,  which  experience  has  proved  to  be  above 
the  reach  of  the  water;  these  remain  like  islands  rising  above 
the  great  lake,  and  are  used  as  sites  for  human  habitations, 
and  for  growing  such  productions  as  cannot  endure  an  inun- 
dation. In  order  that  they  may  be  still  more  secure,  they 
are  surrounded  with  an  earthen  dyke,  especially  the  gardens, 
which  the  owners  would  be  sorry  to  see  overflowed.  Such 
elevated  points  may  either  be  alluvial  formations  dating  from 
the  original  formation  of  the  Nile  valley,  or  are  partly  formed 
artificially  by  piling  up  rubbish. 

At  these  times  communication  is  often  possible  only  by 


THE   OVERFLOW   OF   THE   NILE.  127 

boats  and  rafts;  the  principal  places,  however,  are  connected 
by  earthen  causeways,  which,  directing  their  course  according 
to  the  configuration  of  the  ground,  have  usually  extensive 
windings,  and  cause  the  traveller  upon  terra  firma  to  take 
ver}^  roundabout  roads.  It  sometimes  happens,  too,  that 
the  flood  advances  rapidly  with  great  force  and  in  extra- 
ordinary volume;  the  dyke,  which  is  nowhere  strengthened 
by  stonework,  is  broken  through  at  some  point  of  least  resis- 
tance, the  land  beyond,  which  was  intended  to  be  kept  dry, 
is  overflowed,  and  the  communication  is  interrupted.  This 
happens  almost  every  year  at  individual  points,  and  in  many 
years,  as  in  1863,  1869,  and  1874,  much  mischief  is  thereby 
occasioned. 

The  period  of  high  water  is  the  crisis  for  the  country.  The 
people  are  in  a  state  of  excitement,  and,  ''How  much  has  the 
Nile  risen  to-day?"  is  the  daily  question  of  every  one  who 
thinks  about  the  future.  For,  if  the  overflow  is  too  scanty,  a 
multitude  of  fields  remain  uncultivable  and  fallow,  as  so  much 
added  to  the  neighbouring  desert,  and  the  consequence  is 
scarcity,  if  not  actual  famine.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  too 
abundant,  then  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  the  element 
within  bounds,  and  great  damage  is  everywhere  caused  by 
the  bursting  of  dykes,  the  devastation  of  cultivated  land,  the 
laying  under  water  of  dwellings,  the  washing  away  of  em- 
bankments, and  the  drowning  of  cattle  and  human  beings. 
On  these  occasions  there  are  a  multitude  of  hydraulic 
engineers,  if  we  may  call  them  so,  provincial  ofi[icials  of  all 
kinds,  high  and  low,  magistrates,  burgesses,  and  peasants, 
constantly  on  their  legs,  examining  whether  the  dams  and 
sluices  are  in  good  order,  and  if  any  rupture  occurs  the  people 
are  forced  to  set  to  work.  Even  the  animals  are  in  an  excited 
state.  The  cattle  must  be  driven  from  the  low  grounds  over 
which  the  water  is  spreading;  the  wild  animals,  such  as  mice 
and  the  like,  have  to  leave  their  holes  and  find  new  ones  on 
higher  ground;  the  creeping  creatures,  such  as  lizards,  insects, 
and  worms,  take  refuge  where  the  water  has  not  yet  reached, 
but  at  last  are  drowned.  The  grain-eating  birds,  especially 
the  pigeons,  can  no  longer  procure  their  food,  and  migrate  to 


128  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  desert  and  the  great  caravan  route;  while  the  water- 
birds  now  find  their  food  abundant  in  the  waters,  in  which 
swarm  innumerable  frogs,  fish,  and  water- insects,  and  they 
arrive  in  crowds. 

If,  however,  the  river  god  has  filled  his  horn  of  plenty 
exactly  to  the  brim,  and  the  fact  of  its  having  done  so  has 
become  clear  by  New-year's  or  Nerus  day,  everybody  is 
in  a  state  of  joyful  excitement,  "fantasies"  are  indulged 
in  as  well  as  the  pleasures  of  masquerading,  and  whoever 
can  so  arrange  it  now  gets  married.^  For  after  this  time 
scarcely  a  moment  injurious  to  the  harvest  need  be  feared. 
The  countryman  has  now  more  rest  than  at  other  seasons, 
and  has  time  for  festivities.  At  this  time  the  ancient 
Egyptians  also  indulged  in  all  sorts  of  sports  and  pastimes, 
and  held  great  annual  feasts,  such  as  that  of  Hermes 
or  Thot,  on  the  19th  of  the  month  of  Tut,  which  was 
sacred  to  him.  Along  with  the  water  an  agreeable  coolness 
has  been  diffused  over  the  land,  previously  glowing  with 
tropical  heat;  the  oppressive  Samoom  of  summer  yields  before 
a  cool  north  wind;  it  is  the  "Nile-autumn,"  the  most  agree- 
able season  in  the  land  of  Egypt.  The  vessels  move  about 
more  than  at  other  times,  and  the  voyages  are  considerably 
shortened,  up  stream  by  the  force  of  the  strong  north  wind, 
which  seldom  intermits,  down  stream  by  the  strong  current. 
Desert  towns  become  river  ports,  and  the  products  of  the 
country  can  be  loaded  and  unloaded  outside  and  inside  of 
their  gates.  Lastly,  that  the  measure  of  delights  may  be  full, 
the  Nile  water,  that  drink  divine,  is  cooler  and  more  palatable, 
although  more  turbid  than  before,  and  dates,  melons,  pome- 
granates, lemons,  cucumbers,  and  all  kinds  of  fruits  have  just 
become  ripe.  Accordingly,  now  is  the  time  when  any  one 
who  can  recruit  his  health  once  a  year  does  so,  by  enjoying 
a  change  of  air,  or  taking  a  course  of  bathing  in  the  open 
water  or  in  the  public  steam-baths,  or  by  trying  the  fruit- 
cure. 

According  to  the  common  opinion  the  Nile  now  remains 

^  For  the  three  days'  rule  of  Abu  Nerus,  see  Chap.  III.,  The  Nerus  Day. 


AFTER  THE   INUNDATION.  129 

standing  at  its  height,  neither  rising  nor  falling,  till  the 
Christian  festival  of  the  invention  of  the  cross  (end  of  Sep- 
tember). Even  the  Mohammedan  countryman  in  this  case 
follows  the  Christian  in  reckoning  by  the  cross — at  other 
times  so  reviled. 

AFTER   THE   INUNDATION. 

Although  even  during  the  inundation  the  operations  of 
agricultijre  do  not  stand  quite  still,  since  the  fields  not 
reached  by  the  flood  must  be  continually  watered  arti- 
ficially, yet  the  labour  mainly  begins  only  after  the  Nile 
has  withdrawn,  and  the  fields  begin  to  dry.  The  plough 
in  the  first  place  has  to  turn  up  the  soft  and  clayey 
soil,  which  is  covered  with  a  fresh  layer  of  clay  and  deeply 
sodden  with  water.  The  implements  of  agriculture,  still 
more  than  those  employed  in  handicrafts,  have  preserved 
their  primitive  character,  most  of  them  being  exactly  the 
same  as  those  employed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians;  with  the 
plough  that  is  completely  the  case.  This  instrument,  which 
is  quite  without  wheels,  is  formed  essentially  of  two  pieces 
of  timber  meeting  at  an  obtuse  angle,  the  lower  piece  termi- 
nating in  the  share,  which  is  of  a  rounded  wedge  shape  and 
shod  with  iron,  seldom  entirely  of  this  metal,  while  the  upper 
or  hinder  piece  rises  obliquely,  forming  the  stilt.  From  the 
opening  of  the  angle  rises  the  beam,  which  is  fastened  to  the 
plough  at  its  extremity  directly,  and  farther  up  by  means  of 
a  perpendicular  timber.  At  the  fore  end  of  the  beam  a  long 
cross-bar  is  let  in  or  attached,  and  this,  lying  over  the 
necks  of  the  oxen,  and  fastened  to  them  on  each  side  by 
pieces  of  wood  hanging  down,  or  by  cords,  forms  the  yoke. 
The  different  parts  are  by  no  means  neatly  jointed,  cut, 
and  turned,  but  are  mostly  made  of  rough  branches  just 
as  they  grew,  with  all  their  knots  and  bends,  clinched 
together,  or  merely  tied  with  cords  of  palm-bast.  Place 
behind  this  the  brown-coloured  Fellah,  having  his  bald 
head  covered  with  a  skull-cap,  and  the  upper  part  of  his  body 
or  the  whole  of  it  bare,  except  for  the  loin-cloth;^  and  place 

■^  The  loin-cloth,  often  only  in  the  form  of  a  piece  of  cloth  drawn  through 


130  UPPER   EGYPT. 

in  front  the  team,  either  oxen,  asses,  buffaloes,  horses,  or  some- 
times though  more  rarely  camels,  or  it  may  be  a  camel  on 
one  side,  a  buffalo  on  the  other,  and  then  we  have  a  true 
picture  of  the  primeval  ploughman.  The  implement  sufhces 
for  the  soft,  slimy,  stoneless  soil,  in  which  it  draws  only  very 
superficial  furrows,  and  no  one  thinks  of  improving  it.  For 
many  fields  the  hoe  alone  is  sufficient. 

The  ploughing  is  followed  by  the  sowing,  and  the  harrow- 
ing or  smoothing  of  the  soil,  the  latter  being  usually  accom- 
plished by  causing  draught  cattle  to  drag  a  palm  branch  over 
the  surface,  more  seldom  by  a  toothed  roller.  The  ancients 
drove  swine  and  other  beasts  to  the  fields  when  the  seed  was 
put  in.  The  manuring  of  the  soil  has  been  excellently  per- 
formed already  by  the  overflowing  river;  the  dark  rich  soil 
comes  chiefl}^  from  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia  by  the  Blue 
River,  the  White  River  contributing  little.  Only  a  few  cul- 
tivated plants  require  a  special  manuring,  for  which  pigeons' 
dung  is  the  kind  chiefly  used. 

Thus  gradually  does  the  year  wear  round  to  winter,  that 
is,  the  time  when  the  human  body  often  experiences,  espe- 
cially at  night  before  and  at  sunrise,  a  very  sensible  degree 
of  cold,  even  in  the  most  southerly  parts  of  Upper  Egypt; 
when  a  person  is  glad  to  take  a  seat  beside  the  brazier,  and 
wrap  himself  up  in  warm  coverings  (since  the  temperature 
often  falls  to  39°  Fahr.);  but  when  the  growth  of  plants,  upon 
the  soil  thoroughly  penetrated  by  moisture,  is  most  luxuriant, 
and  the  Nile  valley  at  its  greenest.  Every  month  there  is 
something  to  sow  as  well  as  to  gather  in,  and  accordingly 
always  something  fresh  to  eat. 

THE  EGYPTIAN  CALENDAR. 

The  Arabic  calendar  for  Egypt,  little  known  among  us, 
supplies   a  variety  of  interesting   information  relating  to 

between  the  thighs,  is  fastened  to  a  leathern  thong,  which,  being  plaited  by  the 
hand  of  a  woman,  serves  as  a  talisman  for  masculine  vigour,  and  is  worn  by 
every  peasant.  Such  an  article  was  also  worn  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  judg- 
ing from  representations. 


THE   EGYPTIAN   CALENDAR.  131 

aofriculture,  and  we  give  a  short  extract  from  it.  The 
Mohammedan,  Coptic,  Greek,  Frankish,  and  even  Jewish 
feasts  and  systems  of  reckoning  the  months,  all  which  are 
conscientiously  and  harmoniously  set  down  in  it  side  by 
side,  as  well  as  the  astronomical  information  regarding  the 
sun's  position  and  the  length  of  the  day,  we  omit,  but  we  do 
not  leave  out  the  scattered  sanitary  recommendations.  The 
times  given  for  sowing  and  reaping  are  more  suitable  for 
Lower  Egypt;  Upper  Egypt  is  ten  to  fourteen  days  earlier 
on  the  average.^ 

September.  15.  Cotton  harvest  (little  cotton  is  planted  in  Upper 
Egypt).  16.  Dew  begins  to  fall.  17.  Pomegranates  sown.  19.  Olive 
gathering  (in  Lower  Egypt).  20.  Time  of  Limunes  (or  small  Egyptian 
citrons).  21.  Dates  (also  as  early  as  August).  24.  Pomegranates.  27. 
Fresh  fruits,  best  kind  of  food.  29.  Eat  tunke  {terid,  that  is,  bread 
in  broth  made  with  meat). 

October.  1.  Good  is  it  to  glance  towards  the  clouds  (?).  8.  The 
fruit  (the  bamujeh  fruit)  ripens  (?).  9.  (Sowing  oF  clover,  which  gives 
three  or  four  crops;  in  Upper  Egypt  instead  of  it  the  chickling  vetch  and 
liquorice  vetch  are  more  commonly  sown  as  fodder  and  pasture  plants). 
10.  (Maize  harvest.)  15.  Eice  harvest  (only  in  Lower  Egypt).  16. 
End  of  high  water  in  the  Nile.  18.  Drink  cooling  drinks  (juice  of 
fruits?).  23.  Flax  sown.  25.  Wheat  sown  (also  barley).  26.  Avoid 
sleeping  in  the  open  air.     27.  Beginning  of  morning  coolness. 

November.  2.  Do  not  drink  at  night.  5.  Roses.  7.  Violets  sown. 
16.  SajSfron  gathered.  17.  Rain.  18.  South  winds.  Drink  warm 
water  fasting.  21.  Durra  harvest  (autumn  crop,  which  stood  during 
the  inundation).  24.  Horses  pastured.  25.  The  whole  night  becomes 
cold  (in  the  course  of  November  most  of  the  winter  crops  are  sown — 
lentils,  chick-peas,  wheat,  barley,  beans,  peas,  lupines,  safflower,  lettuce, 
flax,  pop^y,  winter  durra). 

December.  1.  Caraway,  anise,  black  cummin  sown.  Time  of  the 
black  crabs.  4.  Olive-pressing.  5.  Eat  everything  hot.  10.  (First 
cutting  of  clover.)  11.  Insects  perish,  serpents  and  mosquitos  disappear. 
15.  Sugar-cane  ripe.  (Winter  melon  sown.)  16.  Drink  nothing  out 
of  open  vessels  for  three  nights.  17.  The  ants  penetrate  deep  into  the 
ground.  18.  Vapours  rise  from  the  soil  (mist).  23.  First  frost.  25. 
Late  wheat  sown.     29.  Vines  pruned. 

January.  3.  Avoid  eating  fowls.  11.  Tobacco  sown.  Strong 
cold.  10.  (Chickling  vetch  and  liquorice  vetch  cut  or  eaten  off).  17. 
Baptismal  feast.  Greatest  cold  of  winter  (called  baptism-cold;  at  this 
time  the  Christians  in  their  pious  zeal  take  a  cold  plunge-bath).  The 
Nile  water  becomes  sweet  and  clear.     18.    The  depths  of  the  earth 

■^  The  statements  in  parenthesis  are  taken  from  other  sources. 


132  UPPER  EGYPT. 

become  warm.  22.  Eat  hot  (that  is,  heating)  articles  of  food  (such  as 
legumes).     28.  Last  severe  cold. 

February.  1.  The  sap  rises  in  the  stems ;  cattle  in  heat.  3.  Plums 
sown;  trees  planted.  10.  Young  lambs.  13.  The  cold  is  broken.  16. 
Violets.  18-20.  The  little  sun  (see  below).  21.  Birds  pair.  22. 
Young  cucumbers.     25.  Avoid  sitting  in  the  sun. 

March.  2.  Water-fowl  in  great  multitudes.  10.  Indian  cotton  (and 
rice)  sown;  silk-worms  gathered  (all  this  only  in  Lower  Egypt).  10. 
(Barley  harvest.)  12.  Locusts  develop.  14.  Sesame  sown.  17.  Violent 
hurricanes  and  whirlwinds.  18.  Swallows.  20.  Large  sun  (see  below). 
24.  Sugar-cane  sown;  (winter  melons  ripe).  25.  Egyptian  cotton  sown. 
Flax  reaped.  26.  North  winds.  29.  Caraway  sown.  30.  Eat  the 
flesh  of  goats  and  fowls. 

April.  1.  Avoid  eating  cheese.  5.  Time  for  blood-letting.  6.  Trees 
in  blossom  (dates  in  blossom;  summer  durra  and  indigo  sown).  8. 
Time  for  purging.  10.  (Wheat  harvest  in  Upper  Egypt.)  12.  The 
almonds  form  fruits.  16.  Colds  prevail.  17.  First  harvest  in  Cairo.  20. 
Preserve  roses.  29.  Easter  Monday;  beginning  of  Chamasin  (Easter 
varies,  however). 

May.  2.  Henna  sown.  4.  Make  use  of  acids.  6.  Strong  gusts  of 
wind  from  the  north.  7.  Blood-letting,  and  blood  purifying  drinks. 
11.  (Summer)  cucumbers  sown.  12.  Late  wheat  harvest.  14.  Avoid 
salted  meats.  17.  (Summer)  durra  sown  in  Upper  Egypt.  21.  Poppy 
heads  gathered.  .  22.  Falling  of  manna  and  quails  (?).  22.  Safflower 
blossoms  gathered.  27.  Beginning  of  the  strong  heat.  Sirius  sets.  31. 
Time  of  apricots. 

June.  1.  The  sap  of  the  trees  begins  to  diminish.  2.  According 
to  Hippocrates  medical  treatment  should  be  avoided  for  75  days  from 
this  time.  5.  End  of  the  "Nile-burning"  (drought).  7.  Rice  sown.  8. 
The  Nile  water  changes.  9.  Rise  of  the  Pleiades  {Tureya).  10.  Great 
heat  in  men's  bodies.  11.  The  soil  becomes  cracked.  14.  Stinking 
miasmata.  15.  Honey  taken  from  the  hives.  16.  Drink  no  water 
from  the  Nile  for  15  days.  16-17.  Night  of  the  drop  (see  below).  19. 
First  grapes.  20.  Water  melons.  22.  Strongest  heat.  23.  The  Nile 
begins  to  rise.  24.  Bathe  in  cold  water.  25.  Use  tamarinds.  26. 
Press  juice  from  unripe  grapes  (husum).  27.  Use  acids.  29.  Peaches 
and  plums.     30.  Last  time  for  sowing  sesame . 

July.  3.  The  height  of  the  Nile  proclaimed.  4.  Avoid  purgatives. 
5.  The  locusts  perish.  7.  The  Nile  becomes  rapid.  9.  Rather  strong  north 
winds.  10.  Chief  time  for  honey.  11.  The  air  becomes  temperate. 
14.  Maismata  and  fleas  vanish;  the  plague  ceases  where  it  prevails. 
19.  Strong  winds.  20.  Mustard  seed  gathered;  (summer  durra  harvest). 
21.  Samoom  winds  for  forty  days.  25.  Eye  complaints  common.  26. 
Avoid  washing  clothes  for  seven  days.  27.  Grapes,  figs.  28.  Black 
cummin.     29.  Grape-must. 

August.  1.  Summer  melons.  3.  Sirius  rises.  9.  Radish  sown; 
cotton  picking.     10.  Pistachio-nut  ripe.     12.  First  of  the  pomegranates. 


CHAMASIN    AND   EARLY   SUMMER.  133 

15.  (Autumn  durra  sown.)  17.  Beware  of  the  stings  of  insects.  18. 
The  leaves  of  the  trees  changed.  19.  Avoid  eating  sweets;  garlic  and 
onions  sown.  20.  Weaning  of  the  domestic  animals.  24.  Yermin, 
mosquitos.  25.  Morning  coolness;  young  lambs.  29.  Drink  thick 
curdled  milk;  avoid  the  warm  bath.  31.  Kape-sowing;  Fish-fry;  Drink 
less  water. 

THE  TIME  OF  THE  SMALL  AND  OF  THE  GREAT  SUN. 

The  general  seed  time,  the  short  and  verdant  period 
of  winter,  follows,  then,  the  period  of  inundation.  Already 
by  the  19th-20th  of  February,  four  weeks  before  spring 
begins  astronomically  speaking,  the  cold  is  broken  by  the 
approach  of  the  "small  sun,"  and  judging  from  one's  sensa- 
tions, spring  is  begun.  The  name  robi'a  (spring)  means 
literally  "pasture,"  just  as  the  German  Wonnemonat  (May) 
is  properly  Weidemonat  ("pasture-month"),  and  under  this 
title  the  native  of  Upper  Egypt  includes  a  part  of  January 
and  the  whole  of  February,  when  all  the  cattle  are  allowed 
to  pasture  for  some  weeks  upon  clover  and  vetches,  and  are 
only  in  exceptional  cases,  and  usually  against  the  wish  of  the 
owner,  made  to  do  any  work.  On  the  20th-21st  March 
appears  the  "great  sun,"  which  forms  the  dividing  point 
between  the  winter  and  the  summer  half-year,  the  time  fol- 
lowing it  being  looked  upon  as  belonging  to  summer.  The 
period  "between  the  suns,"  that  is,  between  the  little  and  the 
great  sun,  is  important  for  gardening  operations;  whatever 
has  to  be  set  or  planted  is  then  put  into  the  ground. 

CHAMASIN   AND   EARLY   SUMMER. 

In  April,  at  a  time  which  varies,  but  does  not  agree  with 
the  Gregorian  reckoning,  occurs  the  Easter  of  the  Copts,  an 
important  point  in  reckoning  among  natives  of  every  faith. 
With  Easter-monday,  on  which  everybody  goes  abroad  in 
order  "to  smell  the  good  air,"  begins  the  dreaded  season  of 
chamasin.  By  that  term  they  do  not  understand,  at  least 
in  Upper  Egypt,  a  certain  kind  of  wind,  but  the  fifty  days 
between  Easter  and  Pentecost,  when  unwholesome  winds, 
especially  south  winds,  prevail,  and  diseases  commonly  invade 


134  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  country.  This  and  the  period  immediately  succeeding  it, 
the  dry  and  hot  early  summer,  when  also  the  Nile  has  least 
water,  are  for  Egypt  the  gloomiest  times.  Towards  the 
summer  solstice  the  rise  of  the  Nile  begins  to  be  noticeable, 
accompanied  by  an  agreeable  and  healthy  coolness,  north 
winds  becoming  at  the  same  time  more  and  more  frequent. 
But  some  time  before  this,  according  to  the  popular  belief,  on 
the  night  of  the  16th-17th  June,  a  "drop"  has  fallen  into 
the  Nile  and  impregnated  it,  thus  gradually  producing  high 
water.  The  period  during  and  after  the  inundation  is  among 
the  healthiest  and  most  agreeable,  although  one  would  natu- 
rally suppose  the  contrary,  and  there  are,  in  Upper  Egypt  at 
least,  no  intermitting  fevers.  In  July  and  August  a  hot  west 
wind  called  samoom  or  scvmwm  (poison-wind)  often  blows. 

SUMMER  CULTURE. 

Agriculture  does  not  stand  still  in  the  dry  warm  summer; 
on  the  contrary,  the  countryman  now  really  works  for  the 
first  time;  this  is  the  period  of  summer  culture,  after  which 
comes  the  short  period  of  autumn  culture  during  the  inun- 
dation, when  a  few  fields  from  which  the  overflowing  Nile  is 
kept  back  are  made  to  grow  durra  and  maize,  and  in  Lower 
Egypt  also  cotton  and  rice.  The  work  at  this  time  consists 
chiefly  in  irrigation.  The  field  that  is  artificially  watered 
gives  two,  often  three,  harvests  in  the  year,  the  land  that  is 
merely  overflowed  only  one.  In  Upper  Egypt  the  latter 
forms  by  far  the  greater  portion  and  remains  fallow  in  summer, 
but  in  recompense  the  crops,  especially  the  wheat,  are  much 
better  and  more  highly  prized  than  those  in  Lower  Egypt, 
where  the  greater  number  of  the  fields  are  made  to  bear  crops 
in  summer  also.  In  order  to  water  all  these  fields  once  more 
much  labour,  money,  and  above  all  much  water,  is  necessary, 
which  in  Upper  Egypt  is  hard  to  be  got.  When  it  can  be 
managed,  however,  it  is  managed,  and  such  fields  as  can 
be  subjected  to  an  irrigation  of  both  kinds  are  the  best  and 
dearest.  Fields  that  are  watered  entirely  by  artificial  means 
serve  chiefly  as  gardens  or  grounds  for  growing  vegetables. 


WATER-RAISING  APPARATUS.  135 

WATER-RAISING    APPARATUS. 

The  methods  and  machines  for  irrigation  most  commonly 
used  in  Upper  Egypt  are  the  well-known  water-wheel,  and 
especially  the  shadoof  or  water-raising  apparatus,  to  which 
in  Lower  Egypt,  where  the  water  does  not  require  to  be  raised 
so  high,  the  swinging  basket  and  a  kind  of  chambered  wheel 
are  added — all  instruments  of  ingenious  simplicity  that  fulfil 
their   object   very   well.      Large   and   skilfully  constructed 
pumping  apparatus  exist  only  in  the  plantations  of  the  pashas, 
the  people  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  them ;  if  a  private 
person  ventures  upon  any  of  these  novelties  he  is  sure  to  let 
it  stand  again  in  a  few  months  and  return  to  his  old  practice, 
since  something  will  soon  become  broken  or  choked  up,  and 
no  one  can  be  found  for  hundreds  of  miles  who  is  able  to  put  it 
to  rights.     The  shadoof,  as  it  is  still  constructed,  the  Fellahs 
received  from  their  forefathers,  the  people  of  the  Pharaohs. 
In  the  soft  and  steep  bank  of  the  river,  or  of  a  canal,  a  number 
of  trenches,  with  terraces  behind  them,  are  dug  above  each 
other,  the  number  depending  on  the  height  of  the  bank;  at 
the  top  a  reservoir  is  constructed,  the  bottom  of  which  is 
often  strengthened  by  layers  of  reeds  or  palm  stems.     The 
principle  of  tlie  apparatus  for  raising  the  water  is  similar  to 
that  of  a  draw-well,  perhaps  still  more  practical.     On  the 
upper  ends  of  two  pillars  formed  of  rough  palm  stems,  or  more 
commonly  of  clay,  a  cross-beam  is  firmly  attached,  and  under 
the  middle  of  this  a  long  beam  is  balanced  by  means  of  a 
cord-and-bar  joint  (so  that  it  may  move  freely  up  and  down). 
Behind,  that  is,  at  the  shorter  end,  the  end  farther  from  the 
river,  this  beam  terminates  in  a  colossal  ball  of  clay;  from 
the  other  end  hangs  a  palm  twig,  to  the  lower  extremity  of 
which  a  bucket,  usually  of  leather,  is  fastened.    It  is  the  duty 
of  the  labourers  standing  on  the  terraces  to  fill  the  bucket 
in  the  lowest  basin  and  to  empty  the  contents  into  the  next 
above  it ;  the  bucket  is  raised  by  the  weight  of  the  clay  ball 
on  the  arm  of  the  lever,  and  the  workman  has  only  to  guide 
it.    Thus  even  in  ancient  times  did  men  discover  how  to  save 
labour  by  mechanical  means. 


136  UPPER  EGYPT. 

Having  reached  the  highest  basin,  the  water  flows  by  a 
small  channel  on  to  the  border  channels  of  the  fields  that  are 
to  be  watered. 

When  the  river  rises  one  terrace  after  another  is  swept 
away,  and  when  it  sinks  again  as  many  new  ones  are  con- 
structed every  year. 

The  motive  power  in  these  water-raising  apparatus  is  a 
class  of  men  called  "fathers  of  the  shadoof,"  who  in  classical 
brown  nakedness  enliven  at  intervals  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
and  every  now  and  then  utter  shrill  and  plaintive  cries,  while 
the  beams  groan  and  the  buckets  splash. 

A   WATER-WHEEL. 

The  water-wheel  is  a  far  more  complicated  apparatus,  and 
appears  not  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
or  only  in  later  times.  In  Upper  Egypt  it  is  almost  solely 
used  for  gardens.  The  chief  condition  for  the  existence  of 
such  a  wheel  is  a  well  that  contains  spring  water  all  the  year 
round  at  a  certain  depth,  and  that  may  be  the  case  some 
distance  out  in  the  desert.  Such  water,  like  all  in  Egypt 
obtained  by  digging,  is  always  brackish,  often  scarcely  drink- 
able. Two  small  walls  standing  opposite  each  other  carry  a 
large  undressed  palm  stem  lying  across  them.  This  forms 
the  upper  support,  while  several  pieces  of  timber  form  the 
lower  support  of  a  vertical  wooden  cylinder  pointed  at  both 
ends,  and  made  to  revolve  by  means  of  oxen  or  other  animals 
yoked  to  a  pole  projecting  from  it  either  horizontally  or 
obliquely.  The  cylinder  turns  a  toothed- wheel  of  wood  which 
is  immovably  attached  to  it  below,  and  this  turns  a  second 
toothed-wheel  sunk  deeply  into  .the  ground,  the  lengthened 
subterranean  axis  of  this  latter  wheel  ao^ain  driving:  round 
the  water-wheel  proper.  On  the  water-wheel  is  laid  a  so-called 
endless  cord  which  below  dips  into  the  water.  To  the  cord 
at  short  intervals  clay  pitchers  are  attached,  and  so  ingeni- 
ously disposed  that  they  fill  themselves  with  water  in  the 
well  below,  and  then  being  carried  up  and  over  the  top  of 
the  wheel  empty  themselves  one  after  the  other  into  the 


A   WATER-WHEEL.  137 

reservoir  standing  there,  the  empty  pitchers  going  down  the 
other  side  again.  The  driving  beam,  which  projects  from  the 
cylinder,  and  has  at  the  outer  end  diverging  pieces  of  wood 
forming  a  seat  for  the  driver,  often  comfortably  padded, 
is  now  pulled  round  in  a  perpetual  circle  by  the  animal 
attached  to  the  draught-tree.  In  order  to  prevent  the  beast 
from  diverging  from  the  circular  course,  its  head  is  also  sepa- 
rately attached  to  the  main  cylinder  by  a  cord  or  yoke,  and 
for  a  similar  purpose,  or  to  prevent  giddiness,  its  eyes  are 
tied  up.  The  animal — an  ox,  a  cow,  a  horse,  seldom  a  camel 
or  an  ass — once  set  in  motion  revolves,  like  a  planet,  in  its 
strictly  defined  orbit,  so  long  as  the  vis  a  tergo,  namely,  the 
voice  of  the  driver  or  the  lash,  or  still  more  commonly  the 
goad,  continues.  The  work  proceeds  with  the  greatest  brisk- 
ness when  the  driver,  commonly  a  naked  Fellah  boy,  seats 
himself  on  the  above-mentioned  frame,  and  going  round  him- 
self with  the  machine  keeps  his  team  on  its  mettle.  At  the 
same  time  there  is  a  collateral  duty  that  he  performs;  when- 
ever the  beast  he  is  driving  is  about  to  drop  its  excrement 
the  boy  catches  it  in  his  hand  and  lays  the  collected  material 
beside  the  course.  This  is  done  less  perhaps  to  keep  the 
course  clean  than  to  get  a  supply  of  the  important  fuel  that 
is  formed  by  the  dried  dung  of  cattle,  and  cakes  of  this 
material  are  abundantly  plastered  on  the  little  walls  in  order 
to  dry. 

The  water  thus  raised  is  collected  in  a  basin,  and  thence 
conveyed  by  a  small  channel  to  the  land,  which  may  be  laid 
under  water  by  means  of  a  net- work  of  capillaries  drawn  at 
right  angles,  and  surrounding  small  square  fields  lying  at  a 
lower  level.  The  whole  site  occupied  by  the  water-wheel  is 
always  shaded  by  an  arbour,  or  by  a  sycamore,  and  such  spots 
are  among  the  most  delightful  that  are  to  be  found  in  this 
country.  The  tree  (formerly  sacred),  the  arbour,  the  shade, 
the  splashing  water  of  the  well  spreading  coolness  and  fresh- 
ness around,  often  the  only  water  to  be  had  for  a  long  dis- 
tance, and  therefore  supplying  men,  cattle,  birds,  and  all 
kinds  of  creeping  things,  as  well  as  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
the  cattle  quietly  treading  their  circular  course,  the  pleasing 


138  UPPER  EGYPT. 

clack  of  the  toothed-wheels,  and  sounding  above  all,  the 
friction-music  of  the  revolving  cylinder,  now  harshly  groan- 
ing and  creaking,  now  playing  in  impure  but  often  in  pure 
concord — all  these  taken  together  excite  the  feeling  of  a  deep 
idyllic  peace. 

HARVEST. 

The  chief  time  for  the  corn  harvest  is  April  and  May. 
Then  young  and  old,  accompanied  by  beasts  of  burden  and 
other  domestic  animals,  proceed  to  the  field,  though  the 
women,  having  chiefly  the  household  matters  to  attend  to,  are 
less  often  seen  there.  The  stalks  are  cut  below  by  the  sickle, 
or  pulled  up  by  the  roots.  The  cattle  brought  with  them 
then  scatter  themselves  over  the  shorn  fields,  as  also  the  poor 
people  for  the  purpose  of  gleaning,  while  the  farmer  piles  up 
his  bundles  of  ears  into  a  great  heap  in  the  middle  of  the 
field.  There  the  wheat  lies  till  there  is  time  to  subject  it  to 
farther  operations.  The  ancient  Egyptian,  in  place  of  thrash- 
ing his  corn,  which  he  cut  at  the  top  below  the  ears,  had  it 
trodden  out  by  cattle.  That  plan  is  but  seldom  employed 
now,  and  thrashing  is  quite  unknown.  The  separation  of 
the  ears  and  the  husking  of  the  corn  are  much  more  com- 
monly effected  by  the  norag,  that  is,  a  kind  of  waggon  with 
cutting  iron  wheels,  which,  mounted  by  a  peasant  and  drawn 
by  cattle,  goes  round  and  round  the  heap  of  sheaves  in  a  path 
strewed  with  corn-stalks,  and  chops  ears  and  stalks  into 
innumerable  small  pieces.  These  pieces  being  dexterously 
thrown  up  and  winnowed  in  a  breeze  of  wind,  in  the  manner 
practised  also  by  the  ancients,  the  heavy  grain  separates  from 
the  chaff*  and  chopped  stalks,  which  are  lighter  and  therefore 
fly  farther.  A  farther  sifting  is  finally  carried  out  by  the  corn 
sieve,  which  allows  the  grain  only  to  pass  through.  It  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  after  this  process  impurities  of  many 
kinds  remain  among  the  grain,  and  the  ordinary  market  grain 
consists,  besides  the  grain,  of  a  considerable  mixture  of  chopped 
straw,  lumps  of  clay,  pieces  of  weed,  and  pellets  of  dung,  all  of 
which  go  to  make  up  the  measure,  and  it  must  be  subjected  to 


A  PALM- GROVE.  139 

the  industry  of  the  women  at  home  before  grinding  or  baking 
is  to  be  thought  of  The  grain  is  put  into  sacks  and  baskets, 
the  chopped  straw  (long  straw  is  scarcely  to  be  had  in  Egypt) 
into  net- work  bags,  and  carried  by  asses  and  camels  to  the 
barns  in  the  village. 

A  PALM- GROVE. 

We  long  to  escape  from  the  open  field  and  obtain  rest,  shade, 
and  a  draught  of  forest  air.  ''  Forest — what  is  that  ? "  the  native 
asks  us  with  astonishment.  He  understands  the  word  (Jiersh)  no 
more  than,  as  we  have  seen  above,  he  understands  spring 
{rohi'a)  or  meadow  (merg).  None  of  these  are  to  be  met  with  in 
the  land  of  Egypt.  But  instead  we  have  something  far  finer,  we 
think — the  palm,  crowned  the  queen  of  trees,  and  whole  palm- 
groves.  To  wander  under  palms  appeared  to  us  from  ^^outh 
up  the  highest  pleasure  of  the  tropic  world.  We  sought  for 
rest;  but  instead  of  a  soft  grassy  carpet  we  find  in  the  grove  a 
clayey  soil  dried,  cracked,  and  dusty,  or  if  watered,  muddy, 
with  scrubby,  prickly  bushes,  and  dry  and  thirsty  weeds. 
We  wished  for  shade;  but  the  shadow  cast  by  the  lofty  slender 
stem  of  the  palm-tree  is  scarcely  so  broad  as  our  body  with 
arms  and  legs  kept  close  together,  and  whoever  lies  down  in 
this  position  is  again  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  fully  exposed  to 
the  rays  of  the  never-halting  sun;  the  individual  stems  stand 
too  far  apart  for  their  shadows  to  meet  together;  the  covering 
afforded  by  the  crown  of  leaves  proudly  waving  at  a  dizzy 
height  above  is  of  no  avail  on  account  of  the  distance,  and 
the  few  loose  feathery  fronds  that  form  it  let  through  a  thou- 
sand beams  of  light.  We  wished  to  breathe  pure  air;  a  palm 
has  nothing  aromatic  about  it;  stem  and  leaves  are  dry  and 
stiff*;  when  we  breathe  we  cannot  avoid  inhaling  the  dust 
that  is  suspended  in  the  air  of  Egypt,  that  here  in  the  grove 
has  settled  down  more  thickly  on  the  pale  green  leaves  and 
twigs,  and  now  when  the  least  breath  of  air  stirs  falls  down 
on  our  heads  and  clothes,  and  even  enters  the  lungs.  How 
much  more  poetical,  then,  than  a  palm-grove  is  a  pine-grove, 
which  in  other  respects  has  some  resemblance  to  it!     There 


140  UPPER  EGYPT. 

are  many,  too,  perhaps  even  more,  who  are  enthusiastic  about 
the  date-tree.  Its  usefulness  in  all  circumstances  we  must 
admit.  Its  stem,  either  whole  or  split  longitudinally,  serves 
for  beams,  but  the  timber  is  of  no  farther  use  in  building,  nor 
is  it  esteemed  as  fire- wood.  The  ribs  {gerid)  of  the  branches 
or  fronds  are  much  employed  in  all  kinds  of  wicker-work,  for 
lining  the  ceilings  of  rooms,  in  inlaying  and  mosaic  work;  the 
leaves  are  woven  into  mats  and  baskets,  and  used  also  as 
brooms;  the  bast  furnished  by  the  sheaths  of  the  leaves  is 
made  into  cords  and  matting,  and  serves  also  instead  of  bath- 
sponges  for  cleaning  the  body.  The  broad  ends  of  the  leaf- 
stalks, split  up  into  their  component  fibres,  are  also  used  as 
brooms.  The  fruit  forms  an  important  article  of  food;  its 
sweetness  even  enables  it  to  take  the  place  of  sugar;  and  a 
spirit  is  distilled  from  it.  Lastly,  by  piercing  into  the  heart 
of  the  crown,  palm- wine  is  obtained,  but  the  death  of  the 
tree  is  the  result. 

A  GARDEN. 

We  do  not  here  mean  to  speak  of  the  fine  gardens  of  many 
pashas  and  Europeans  in  the  capital,  where  plants  of  the 
temperate  and  torrid  zones  of  the  Old  and  the  New  World, 
tended  by  Frankish  gardeners,  display  in  charming  array 
their  rich  perennial  verdure,  flourishing  in  the  open  air 
under  a  mild  sky  and  in  fertile  soil;  it  is  of  the  gardens 
of  the  country  people  that  we  shall  speak,  and  these  afibrd 
scarcely  more  satisfaction  than  a  palm-grove,  and  also  differ 
but  little  from  one,  since  here  also,  in  these  areas,  surrounded 
by  a  mud- wall  and  watered  by  a  water-wheel,  it  is  the  useful 
palm  that  forms  the  most  prominent  and  striking  object. 
To  be  sure  fruit  and  foliage  trees,  which  closely  occupy  the 
intermediate  spaces,  give  shade,  coolness,  and  an  atmosphere 
smacking  more  of  vegetation,  but  the  poetic  charm  of 
blossoming  flowers  is  wanting.  For  flowers  the  Egyptian 
countryman  has  no  feeling,  he  thinks  only  on  dry  utility. 
In  this  respect  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  much  more 
poetical,  as  are  at  the  present  day  the  Moslems  of  other 


A   GAKDEN.  141 

regions.  The  laying  out  of  the  whole,  too,  is  as  a  rule  con- 
fused; it  is  scarcely  traversed  by  a  path,  and  the  visitor  has 
often  literally  to  bore  his  way  through  the  thick  shrubbery 
and  prickly  undergrowth.  The  rose  is  the  favourite  flower; 
but  one  does  not  see  many  attempts  at  cultivating  either 
this  or  other  plants  so  as  to  produce  varieties  or  fuller  and 
finer  flowers.  Other  plants  cultivated  are  jasmine,  rosemary, 
mignonette,  mint,  and  sesbania,  and  the  people  have  a  special 
fancy  for  basil.  Besides  these  the  garden  always  oflers  a 
rich  variety  of  vegetables  that  bear  the  stamp  of  the  South, 
and  is  therefore  well  worth  visiting. 

Alongside  of  the  dioecious  date-palm  stands  the  doom-palm, 
remarkable  for  its  repeated  dichotomous  branchings,  and  for  its 
edible  fruit  resembling  a  cocoa-nut ;  it  is  called  Cucifera  The- 
baica,  because  the  Thebais  is  its  head-quarters,  beyond  which 
(that is, beyond lat.27°N.)itneverextendsnorthward.  Genuine 
acacia  trees  of  several  species,  with  highly  ornamental  feathery 
leaves,  and  rather  a  low  stem,  from  which  oozes  the  well-known 
gum  Arabic,  some  of  them  with  very  astringent  fruits,  com- 
monly used  in  tanning,  form  dense  thorny  thickets  or  groves 
that  cannot  be  approached.  Among  other  trees  we  do  not 
fail  to  remark  the  stately  Labbach  acacia  {Alhizzia  lebbak), 
first  introduced  from  the  East  Indies  under  Mohammed  Ali, 
the  myrtle,  a  willow,  and  the  St.  John's  bread  tree.  Of  the 
pine  tribe  only  the  cypress  can  be  made  to  spring  from  the 
southern  soil;  while  on  the  other  hand  the  tamarisks,  their 
representatives,  flourish  luxuriantly.  The  Hegelig  tree 
(Balanites),  a  native  of  the  South,  also  thrives,  and  the 
Tamar-henna  (Lawsonia),  which  produces  the  henna  pig- 
ment in  so  common  use  here;  while  the  tropical  banana 
sometimes  brings  its  fruit-cones,  the  finest  of  all  fruits,  to 
the  condition  of  luscious  ripeness.  Quite  at  home  here  is 
the  Zizyphus  spince  Christi,  with  its  miniature  apples;  the 
pomegranate-tree,  and  the  wild  fig-tree  or  sycamore,  the 
stateliest  tree  of  this  zone.  The  real  fig-tree  produces  only 
a  middling  kind  of  fig,  the  citron-tree  only  a  small  citron  of 
the  size  of  a  walnut,  the  orange-tree  only  a  green  and  not  very 
sweet  orange.     It  is  too  hot  here  also  for  the  olive,  the  mul- 


1-12  UPPER   EGYPT. 

berry,  and  the  Indian  fig  {Cactus  opuntia),  which  as  far 
south  as  Middle  Egypt  thrive  well  enough.  Apples,  pears, 
quinces,  peaches,  plums,  damsons,  belong  to  a  colder  zone, 
and  though  often  planted  the  trees  do  no  good.  The  kindly 
vine,  however,  has  spread  even  as  far  as  this,  and  is  much 
cultivated  in  the  gardens  in  the  form  of  arbours;  its  sweet 
and  abundant  berries  are  merely  eaten,  scarcely  ever  con- 
verted into  wine — not  even  by  the  Christians,  who  prefer  to 
get  drunk  on  date- spirit. 

FIELD  AND   GARDEN   PLANTS. 

The  vegetables  most  common  in  gardens  are  the  harifiiyeli 
(Hibiscus  esculentus,  one  of  the  mallow  tribe)  and  the 
molucMyeh  {Corchorus  olitorius,  a  tiliaceous  plant,  tasting 
somewhat  like  spinage),  kulkds  {Arum  Coloeasia,  with  a 
taste  like  that  of  a  potato),  the  egg-plant  {Solanuon  melon- 
gena)  and  paradise  apples  {Solanimi  lycopersicu7)i);  while 
Solarium  tuberosum,  that  is,  the  potato,  is  not  planted  at  all 
in  Upper  Egypt,  and  in  Lower  Egypt  only  here  and  there, 
as,  e.g.,  at  Alexandria.  It  is  brought  almost  entirely  from 
abroad,  is  dear,  does  not  keep  well,  and  therefore  is  little 
used  in  Egypt.  There  are  also  turnips,  mangolds,  purslane, 
spinage,  mallows,  cabbage,  celery,  carrots  (a  purple-red  kind), 
sorrel,  rockets,  beet,  lettuce  (eaten  raw  or  cooked,  seldom 
with  vinegar  as  a  salad),  lastly,  radishes  (a  peculiar  kind,  of 
which  as  a  rule  the  leaves  only,  and  not  the  small  sharp  root, 
are  eaten),  onions,  garlic,  cives,  parsley,  cress,  and  mustard. 
Of  plants  for  seasoning  there  ai"e  caraway,  coriander,  anise, 
dill,  fennel,  black  cummin,  and  red  pepper.  Our  district  is 
specially  favoured  as  regards  plants  of  the  order  Cucurbi- 
tacese.  There  are  no  fewer  than  five  kinds  of  those  cooling: 
fruits  the  melons,  which  enable  us  easily  to  put  up  with  the 
absence  of  many  other  kinds  of  fruits,  cucumbers  from  dwarf 
to  giant  size,  gourds  that  may  be  made  excellent  vegetables 
with  plenty  of  cooking,  often  of  extravagant  form  and 
dimensions. 

The  following  are  mainly  cultivated  in  fields:  of  the  cereals, 


(JARDENS  AND  CULTIVATED  PLANTS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS.     148 

wheat,  barley  (but  not  oats),  durra,  maize,  seldom  the  Soudan 
millet  (duchn)  and  Indian  millet;  in  Lower  Egypt,  rice;  of 
legumes,  lentils,  beans,  chickpeas,  lupines  (tirmis),  lubias, 
and  several  other  kindred  legumes;  of  green  fodder,  clover, 
fenugreek,  lucerne,  and  chickling  vetches.  Farther,  of  dye- 
plants,  indigo,  henna  (mostly  shrubby),  safflower,  saffron, 
madder;  of  oil-plants,  rape,  lettuce,  castor-oil  plant,  sesame, 
safflower,  poppy;  of  fibrous  plants,  flax,  hemp,  cotton  (more 
in  Lower  Egypt);  of  narcotic  plants,  tobacco,  hemp,  poppy 
(but  opium  and  hashish  are  mostly  imported  from  abroad); 
lastly,  the  sugar-cane,  partly  for  the  preparation  of  sugar, 
partly  (a  smaller  kind)  for  eating. 

THE  GARDENS  AND  CULTIVATED  PLANTS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  bestowed  much  attention  upon 
their  gardens.  These  contained  flowers  in  the  richest  abund- 
ance, partly  growing  in  the  ground,  partly  in  pots  standing  in 
the  beds  near  the  garden  walks.  The  larger  gardens  included 
alleys  lined  with  trees  of  various  kinds,  parks  for  game  and 
poultry,  special  kitchen -gardens,  arboretums,  and  vineyards. 
In  the  last  the  vines,  which  were  formerly  much  more  exten- 
sively grown,  were  trained  on  bowers  or  trellises;  in 
gathering  the  grapes,  if  we  can  trust  to  the  representations, 
apes  were  made  use  of,  whose  dexterit}^  in  such  matters, 
though  unquestionable,  must  have  been  of  rather  hazardous 
application.  Instead  of  employing  the  water-wheel,  the 
ancients  conducted  abundance  of  water  from  the  Nile  by 
special  canals,  and  usually  constructed  ponds  and  lakes  in 
the  gardens  to  serve  not  only  for  irrigation,  but  for  sailing 
and  fishing. 

The  cultivated  plants  of  ancient  Egypt  were  in  great  part 
those  of  to-day.  Not  the  smallest  difference  can  be  detected 
between  the  fruits  and  plants  found  on  the  oldest  monuments 
and  those  of  the  present  time.  Many  were  employed  and 
cultivated  to  a  greater  extent  than  now,  as  the  castor-oil 
plant;  of  some,  as  the  lotus  and  papyrus,  which  were  once  so 
famous,  the  native  at  the  present  day  hardly  knows  the 


144  UPPER  EGYPT. 

name.  The  lotus,  like  the  Egyptian  fig-tree,  was  a  sacred 
plant;  its  blossom  was  esteemed  the  most  beautiful  of  flowers, 
and  its  root-stock  and  seeds  were  used  as  food;  of  papyrus 
all  kinds  of  plaited  work  were  made,  such  as  mats,  curtains, 
ropes,  sails,  and  light  canoes,  while  its  spongy  pith,  besides 
being  eaten,  was  used  for  making  paper.  Other  plants  were 
not  introduced  till  later,  some  only  in  modern  times;  among 
them  we  may  specify  cotton  (already  mentioned  by  Pliny), 
the  sugar-cane  (in  the  time  of  the  Caliphs),  rice,  indigo, 
tobacco,  and  maize. 

THE  WILD   PLANTS. 

In  our  rural  wanderings  we  take  care  to  examine  and  col- 
lect also  the  plants  growing  wild.  Here  we  find  very  few  of 
those  with  which,  in  our  tours  in  the  Fatherland  in  former 
times,  we  filled  our  vasculum,  since  we  have  already  left 
"Linne's,  and  even  Decandqlle's  kingdom"  behind  us,  and  now 
stand  in  that  of  Forskal  and  Delile,  in  the  sub-tropical  zone 
of  palms  and  myrtles.  We  find  very  little,  however,  of  any 
kind,  less  than  in  most  other  parts  of  the  world,  scarcely 
more  than  in  the  desert,  and  what  we  do  obtain  is  dry,  rigid, 
bulky,  prickly,  hairy,  and  downy,  so  that  it  is  ill  suited  for 
the  herbarium.  The  scarcity  of  wood  in  the  country  is  so 
great  that  dung  forms  the  chief  fuel,  and  all  goods  which  can 
be  so  treated  are  packed  in  crates  formed  of  palm  branches 
instead  of  boxes  and  cases,  while  timber  is  little  used  in 
building.  A  large  proportion  of  the  timber  used  for  building, 
even  for  ships,  has  to  be  imported  from  abroad.  The  whole 
known  flora  of  Egypt,  inclusive  of  the  deserts  belonging  to 
it,  comprises  1140  species,  of  which  again  400  at  least  belong 
to  the  strip  of  coast  on  the  Mediterranean.  In  floral  wealth, 
therefore,  Egypt  will  not  compare  at  all  with  any  district  of 
equal  size  belonging  to  the  temperate  or  tropical  zones.  In 
this  country,  wherever  there  is  a  spot  where  a  wild  plant  can 
grow,  especially  where  the  soil  is  watered,  there  forthwith 
comes  the  countryman  and  sows  a  crop  on  it,  extirpating  the 
wild  plants  as  so  many  weeds.    There  are  here  only  two  soils 


THE  ANIMAL  WOKLD.  145 

— the  cultivated  clay-soil  and  that  of  the  desert.  In  the 
desert  the  plants  grow  almost  exclusively  in  the  valleys,  since 
the  slopes  of  the  hills,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  water- 
courses, are  devoid  of  soil  or  moisture.  In  this  country  there 
are  none  of  the  plants  whose  habitat  is  rocks,  alpine  heights, 
woods,  moors,  meadows,  mounds  of  debris,  swamps,  and  lakes, 
since  such  localities  either  do  not  exist  or  do  not  enjoy  shade 
and  permanent  water.  Consequently  there  remain  only  the 
fields,  whether  cultivated  or  fallow,  steep  and  uncultivated 
river  margins,  hedgerows,  the  river,  and  the  bed  of  an  inun- 
dation canal.  In  such  places  there  springs  up  of  course  a 
considerable  number  of  plants,  but  even  then  only  in  a  scat- 
tered fashion,  never  forming  a  continuous  covering.  Not 
even  the  grasses,  which  appear  in  tolerable  variety,  unite  to 
form  a  carpet  of  verdure;  there  are  therefore  no  meadows, 
which  elsewhere  lend  such  a  charm  to  the  landscape,  the 
only  substitute  for  them  being  the  clover-fields,  which  serve 
as  pastures,  and  the  corn-fields  so  long  as  they  are  green. 
The  leaves  of  the  plants  in  the  dry,  glowing,  dusty  atmosphere 
never  attain  that  fresh  rich  green  which  so  delights  the  eye, 
and  even  the  flowers  want  for  the  most  part  the  deep  fiery 
colours.  Perennial  plants,  and  especially  the  trees,  are  ever- 
green; they  have  no  period  of  rest,  and  between  the  falling 
leaves  of  last  year  new  ones  already  sprout  again  in  January. 
Mosses,  ferns,  fungi,  and  cryptogams  in  general  are  extremely 
few.  In  the  wild-growing  flora  orchids  are  entirely  wanting. 
The  clayey  valley  of  the  Nile  possesses  some,  though  not 
many,  of  the  wild  plants  in  common  with  the  desert,  and  it 
has  been  observed  that  such  plants  as  in  the  desert  send  out 
long  fibrous  roots  in  order  to  imbibe  the  scanty,  deeply-seated, 
and  widely-spread  moisture,  when  settled  in  a  moist  and 
cultivated  soil  acquire  shorter  roots  and  become  more  tender, 
so  that  even  biennials  turn  into  annuals. 

THE   ANIMAL  WORLD. 

We  have  still  to  glance  briefly  at  the  fauna  that  is  to  be 
met  with  in  Egypt.     The  remarkable  form  of  the  camel,  the 

10 


146  UPPER   EGYPT. 

most  important  domestic  animal  of  modem  Egypt,  we  see 
everywhere  in  large  numbers  and  performing  the  most  diverse 
functions;  still  more  numerous  is  the  useful  ass,  once  sacred 
to  Typho,  not  held  in  high  esteem,  but  belonging  to  an 
excellent  race.  Compared  with  it  the  horse  plays,  we  may 
almost  say,  a  subordinate  part.  The  latter  is  used  for  riding 
by  a  very  few  personages  of  the  highest  rank,  or  it  drives 
the  mill,  but  rarely  draws  the  plough.  The  common  Egyp- 
tian country  horse  has  not  much  in  common  with  the  cele- 
brated Arab;  it  is  rather  heavy,  gallops  well,  trots  little,  but 
is  said  to  have  good  powers  of  endurance.  Many  horses  also 
are  imported  from  Arabia,  Syria,  Nubia,  Darfur,  Barbary, 
and  Europe.  The  mule  is  much  employed  for  carrying  loads, 
as  also  the  horse  and  the  ass. 

Not  long  ago  Egypt  was  rich  in  cattle,  but  the  epidemic 
of  1863  and  the  following  years,  which  still  continues  to  rage, 
has  almost  entirely  annihilated  the  old  long-horned  race 
represented  on  the  monuments.  The  imported  foreign  cattle, 
the  ox  of  Soudan  and  European  races,  become  acclimatized 
with  difficulty;  the  Indian  and  African  zebu,  likewise  intro- 
duced, which  even  the  ancient  Egyptians  employed,  is,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  country  people,  ill  suited  to  the  agricultural 
labours  of  this  region,  consisting,  so  far  as  cattle  are  concerned, 
in  ploughing,  and  turning  the  water-wheel  and  the  norag. 
Fortunately  the  grayish-black  buffalo,  which  loves  a  kind  of 
amphibious  life,  has  been  spared  by  the  disease,  as  likewise 
the  camel,  and  it  forms  a  substitute  for  the  ox,  being  strong 
though  rather  slow  to  work,  and  yielding  rich  and  good  milk, 
nourishing  but  somewhat  coarse  and  tough  flesh,  and  strong 
leather.  The  flesh  and  milk  of  the  camel  are  little  esteemed. 
Neither  buffalo  nor  camel  is  represented  by  the  ancients. 
Flesh  meat  is  mainly  furnished  by  the  Nile  sheep,  which 
belongs  to  the  fat-tailed  race,  and  is  mostly  of  a  dark-brown 
colour,  with  thick  wool  and  a  tuft  on  the  head.  When  the 
poorer  classes  eat  flesh  it  is  that  of  the  goat.  Both  animals 
were  once  sacred.  The  so  called  Egyptian  goat  proper,  with 
the  long  ears  and  the  curved  nose,  is  oftener  seen  in  Lower 
Egj^pt.     The  unclean  swine,  once  an  emblem  of  Typho,  may 


THE  ANIMAL  WORLD.  147 

be  heard  grunting  at  most  in  the  stye  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
monk  or  a  Greek  tavern  keeper.  The  strict  prohibition  of 
its  flesh  by  Moses  and  Mohammed  is  based,  however,  more 
on  a  prejudice  borrowed  from  the  ancient  Egyptians  than 
on  superior  wisdom,  since  the  Europeans  in  Cairo  and  Alex- 
andria, and  the  Greeks  in  Upper  Egypt,  partake  of  it  with- 
out bad  effects,  and  the  natives  themselves  eat  the  fattest 
mutton  even  in  the  hot  season.  Besides,  pork  was  eaten  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians  at  least  once  a  year,  when  sacrificing 
to  Typho. 

Of  the  existence  of  the  half-wild  jackal-like  dog,  wdiich, 
like  the  jackal,  was  once  sacred,  and  at  Lycopolis  was  em- 
balmed in  multitudes,  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  con- 
vince ourselves.  The  cat,  whose  progenitor  is  believed  to  be 
the  Felis  Qnaniculata  of  Upper  Egypt  and  Nubia,  leads  a 
very  dainty  and  thievish  life,  and  is  also  half  wild.  It  is 
much  preferred  to  the  dog  by  the  adherents  of  Islam,  and  is 
also  to  some  extent  regarded  with  superstitious  awe  and 
therefore  well  treated,  the  ginns  or  spirits  being  supposed 
frequently  to  make  use  of  it  as  form  and  medium.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  held  it  as  sacred.  The  striped  hyaena  is 
not  at  all  uncommon,  both  in  the  desert  and  among  the  ruins 
and  quarries  on  the  edge  of  the  Nile  valley;  it  is  only  at 
night  that  it  visits  inhabited  districts  in  search  of  carrion. 
The  jackal  (Canis  aureus),  called  in  Upper  Egypt  dih, 
which  means  strictly  wolf,  also  frequents  the  borders  of  the 
desert,  but  always  in  the  neighbourhood  of  inhabited  locali- 
ties; during  the  night  and  before  daybreak  its  ''hideous 
howl"  is  heard  in  concert  with  the  not  very  different  barking 
of  the  country  people's  dogs,  whose  duty  it  is  to  guard  the 
farms  against  the  predatory  excursions  of  the  jackal,  which 
is  not  contented  with  carrion,  but  is  still  fonder  of  poultry, 
lambs,  and  goats.  The  Nile  fox  also  (Canis  Niloticus)  is  fond 
of  poultry;  but  it  is  most  successfully  hunted  in  the  gardens, 
especially  at  the  time  when  the  grapes  are  ripe.  In  the 
western  desert  it  is  represented  by  the  little-eared  fox  or 
fennec,  in  the  eastern  by  the  Canis  famelicus,  which  is 
similar  to  it.     Of  beasts  of  prey  there  are  also  sometimes 


148  UPPER   EGYPT. 

found  the  swamp-lynx,  the  wild  cat  (Felis  maniculata), 
several  other  species  of  jackal  (Canis  r)iesomelas  and  C.varie- 
gatus),  the  genet  and  the  zorilla  {Bhahdogale  mustelina). 
The  Pharaoh's  rat  or  ichneumon  belongs,  like  the  wild  boar, 
to  Lower  Egypt.  Of  the  antelopes  that  inhabit  the  desert 
the  gazelle  {Antilope  dorcas),  which  also  occasionally  ap- 
proaches the  Nile,  is  the  most  common;  this  very  clean  little 
animal  is  not  seldom  kept  in  a  tame  state  by  the  inhabitants. 
The  hare  {Lepus  jEgyptiacus)  is  common  in  the  Nile  valley 
and  in  the  desert,  especially  in  tamarind  groves.  It  is  not 
hunted,  and  the  genuine  Mohammedan  despises  its  flesh. 
The  dwellers  on  the  Nile,  in  general,  are  no  great  sportsmen, 
although  there  are  here  no  restrictions.  There  are,  however, 
some  professional  hunters,  especially  hunters  of  the  hysena, 
commonly  Bedouins.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  hunting 
was  a  favourite  amusement.  Hedgehogs  are  not  uncommon, 
but  the  porcupine,  which  is  figured  on  the  monuments,  is  no 
longer  to  be  met  with.  The  once  sacred  hippopotamus  too 
has  long  been  driven  from  Egypt  proper;  that  he  still  exists, 
however,  in  the  neighbouring  countries  in  the  Upper  Nile  is 
made  feelingly  manifest  by  the  judicial  lash  which  is  pre- 
pared from  his  hide  and  is  in  common  use. 

Besides  the  innumerable  mice  and  rats  that  infest  the 
dwelling-houses,  ships,  and  store-houses,  large  thick-headed 
field-mice  frequent  the  fields  and  earthen  dykes,  and  in  many 
quarters  are  esteemed  as  dainties  b}^  the  peasants.  A  shrew, 
which  was  deemed  sacred  by  the  ancients,  also  occurs.  Grot- 
toes, old  temples,  and  tombs  are  haunted  by  bats  of  many 
genera  and  species,  and  in  fabulous  numbers;  one  of  the  most 
interesting  is  the  date-eating,  but  not  blood-sucking,  vampyre 
(Pteropus  JEgyptiacus). 

Monkeys,  which  were  sacred  animals  among  the  ancients, 
are  nowhere  found  wild  in  Egypt  proper,  though  they  may 
be  seen  often  enough  in  the  possession  of  professional  monkey 
tamers;  a  "right  man"  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  mon- 
keys, as  they  bring  ill-luck  upon  a  house,  or  at  any  rate 
disorder  and  uncleanliness.  Indeed  there  are  scarcely  any 
other  animals  kept  but  gazelles,  as  no  advantage  is  derived 


THE  ANIMAL  WORLD.  149 

from  them.  It  is  only  the  great  pashas  in  the  capital  that 
care  to  keep  lions  and  such  like  in  their  courts.  The  large 
animals  of  Soudan  (giraffes,  antelopes,  ostriches)  are  often 
met  with  durinor  the  time  of  high  water  in  late  summer  and 
autumn  on  the  vessels  of  the  Soudan  traders  (gelldh),  who 
sell  them  in  Cairo. 

Of  the  360  species  of  birds  the  greater  number  are  old 
acquaintances  from  Europe.  In  the  hot,  dry,  early  summer 
this  class  of  animals  is  almost  entirely  absent,  and  on  a  hot 
summer's  noon  the  few  that  are  left  conceal  themselves  and 
become  dumb.  Even  the  shore-birds  are  mostly  identical 
with  European  species,  though  they  are  also  to  some  extent 
distinctly  Egyptian,  or  at  least  African  species.  Among 
birds  of  prey  we  may  mention  the  great  white-headed  and 
eared  vulture,  the  little  vulture,  some  species  of  eagles  and 
falcons  (especially  the  little  kestrel  and  several  noble  falcons, 
which  are  still  employed  in  falconry  as  they  were  among  us 
in  the  middle  ages),^  the  kite  that  may  be  heard  everywhere, 
and  several  owls.  Of  scansorial  birds  there  are  the  lark- 
heeled  and  the  crested  cuckoo,  while  woodpeckers  are  absent; 
of  Clamatores  there  are  several  peculiar  goat-suckers  and 
swifts  (of  the  latter  a  Cypselus  parvus  frequents  the  region  of 
the  doom-palm),  the  hoopoe,  which  is  common  in  all  Egypt, 
also  bee-eaters  and  a  kingfisher;  of  the  order  of  singing  birds  (in 
the  wider  sense)  there  are  the  hooded  crow  (?),  while  the  great 
black  Noah's  raven  (Gorvus  umhrinus)  belongs  to  the  desert; 
also  the  crested  lark,  the  sparrow,  which  is  here  common,  a 
butcher-bird,  peculiar  species  of  swallows,  the  wagtail;  and 
of  singing  birds  proper,  the  Egyptian  nightingale  and  the 
stone-chat;  but  on  the  whole  the  singing  of  birds  is  not  heard 
in  Egypt,  as  the  birds  that  pass  through  or  winter  in  the 
country  do  not  sing  in  the  winter  season.  Of  the  partridge 
tribe  the  cackling  sand-grouse  occurs  in  the  Nile  valley,  bat 
is  more  common  in  the  desert ;  quails  are  only  birds  of  pas- 
sage. Native  wading  birds  (exclusive  of  those  frequenting 
the  lakes  of  Lower  Egypt)  are  the  curlew,  the  cattle-ibis 

^  A  falcon  was  sacred  to  the  sun-god  Ka. 


150  UPPER  EGYPT. 

(Buhulcus  ibis),  which  always  marches  after  herds  of  cattle  at 
pasture,  and  was  formerly  sacred,  the  two  egrets,  the  crested 
lapwing,  the  Egyptian  plover  (the  celebrated  trochilus  of  the 
ancients),  and  the  marabout;  lastly,  of  water-birds  that  belong 
to  Egypt  there  are  the  Nile  goose,  and  several  gulls  and  sea- 
swallows.  On  the  other  hand,  the  country  becomes  in  winter 
the  rendezvous  of  a  considerable  number  of  the  large  and 
active  tribe  of  birds.  Those  that  migrate  come  from  the  North 
to  the  land  of  Egypt,  almost  the  only  possible  highway  to 
the  interior  of  Africa,  in  order  either  to  pass  the  winter  here 
or  to  go  still  farther  south,  and  again  pass  through  in  the 
end  of  winter.  As  soon  also  as  the  Nile  has  spread  itself  over 
the  fields,  the  water  and  marsh  birds  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  lakes  of  Lower  Egypt  visit  Upper  Egypt  in  immense 
flocks. 

Of  the  poultry  tribe  fowls  and  pigeons  in  particular  are 
kept.  The  rearing  of  the  former  is  facilitated  by  the  hatching 
stoves,  which  were  known  even  in  the  time  of  the  ancients; 
for  the  latter  dwellings,  often  more  roomy  and  elegant  than 
those  of  the  people,  are  everywhere  provided,  and  in  these 
they  dwell  in  immense  numbers,  both  the  tame  particoloured 
or  white  breeds,  and  the  bluish-coloured  wild  breeds,  to 
which  we  may  add  the  elegant  turtle-doves,  also  abundant. 
Geese,  ducks,  and  turkeys,  here  called  malta-cocks,  are  less 
numerous. 

The  brilliant  birds  of  the  torrid  zone  remain  within  the 
tropic,  which  does  not  touch  Egypt  proper  at  all.  Some  few 
of  them,  however,  during  the  tropical  rains,  that  is  to  say,  in 
early  summer,  migrate  northwards,  but  here  only  reach  the 
south  of  Egypt;  among  these  are  the  sacred  ibis,  the  tantalus, 
and  an  African  honey-sucker. 

•The  Reptilia  are  represented  by  some  remarkable  genera 
and  species.  The  Nile  crocodile,  though  it  has  become  scarce, 
is  still  found  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  every  year  demands  some 
human  victims.  A  lizard,  which  from  its  Arabic  name  of 
waran  has  been  called  the  warning-lizard  (monitor),  and 
which  resembles,  though  smaller,  the  crocodile,  to  whose  eggs 
it  is  very  destructive,  may  not  unfrequently  be  seen  roaming 


THE  ANIMAL  WORLD.  151 

about  the  sloping  banks  of  the  river  and  its  canals;  the  moun- 
tain waran  {Psanvniosauros),  on  the  other  hand,  belongs  to 
the  desert.  Of  tortoises  and  turtles  there  occurs  in  Egypt, 
in  the  Nile,  a  fine  river-turtle  {Trionyx  Niloticus).  Gaily- 
coloured  lizards  may  be  seen  everywhere  sunning  themselves 
on  banks,  and  into  the  lower  part  of  the  wall  of  almost  every 
house  the  slippery  seine,  which  was  formerly  used  in  medi- 
cine, has  penetrated.  On  the  walls  of  rooms  glide  and  squeak 
the  small  nocturnal  geckos,  the  pilfering  but  otherwise  harm- 
less ** fathers  of  leprosy."  Here  and  there  upon  trees  the 
chameleon,  so  celebrated  for  its  change  of  colours,  may  be 
observed,  while  the  ground  agamas  and  harduns,  which  are 
sometimes  prettily  coloured,  several  feet  long,  and  with  long 
ringed  tails,  prefer  the  desert. 

Egypt  has  been  since  early  times  renowned  as  a  land  of  ser- 
pents. There  are  about  twenty  poisonous  and  non-poisonous 
species.  As  in  the  days  of  Moses  there  are  still  at  the  pre- 
sent day  a  considerable  number  of  serpent-charmers.  If  any 
one  wishes  to  collect  serpents  he  must  have  recourse  to  these 
people,  who  display  great  skill  in  discovering  these  creatures 
and  enticing  them  out  of  their  lurking  places.  The  serpents 
with  which  these  Psylli  give  their  exhibitions,  and  which 
consist  chiefly  of  the  once  sacred  African  cobra  {Naja  haje), 
are  always  deprived  of  their  poison  fangs.  The  horned  viper, 
which  is  also  very  poisonous,  is  oftenest  represented  by  the 
ancients. 

In  the  stagnant  waters  left  behind  by  the  inundation 
millions  of  frogs  and  toads  are  developed  every  year;  as  the 
land  dries  they  all  perish  except  a  few  that  remain  to  keep 
up  the  race,  having  either  taken  up  their  quarters  in  a  spot 
that  continues  moist,  or  penetrated  to  a  deeper  and  moister 
stratum  of  the  soil.     Salamanders  are  entirely  absent. 

Among  the  most  highly-prized  gifts  of  the  bounteous  Nile 
are  its  fishes.  These  are  mostly  peculiar  forms,  having  little 
affinity  with  the  fishes  of  European  waters,  but  more  with 
those  of  other  African  rivers,  for  example,  the  Senegal.  The 
number  of  species  hitherto  found  in  the  Nile  over  its  whole 
course  amounts  to  about  eighty.      Their  geographical  dis- 


152  UPPER  EGYPT. 

tribution  is  very  interesting.  Seventeen  species  are  found  in 
the  lower  Nile,  that  is,  below  the  cataracts.  Among  these  are 
some  unmistakably  Mediterranean  fish  which  periodically 
migrate  up  the  river  from  the  sea,  such  as  several  mullets 
{mugil),  the  Twait  shad  (Clupea  finta) ,  and  the  eel;  they  are 
naturally  most  common  in  Lower  Egypt.  From  the  former 
the  Arabian  cured  herrings  (fezich)  are  chiefly  prepared. 
Thirty-six  species  have  been  found  in  the  upper  and  lower 
Nile;  in  the  latter  many  occur  only  at  the  time  of  the  inun- 
dation. Nineteen  species  are  characteristic  of  the  upper  Nile, 
of  which  eight  also  occur  in  the  west  African  rivers,  and  are 
genuine  tropical  forms.  Altogether  the  Nile  has  twenty-six 
species  in  common  with  West  Africa,  but  with  East  Africa  only 
five  or  six.  In  the  lower  Nile,  besides  the  above-mentioned 
Mediterranean  forms,  there  are  representatives  of  the  family 
of  the  perches,  of  the  carps,  and  in  especial  richness  of 
the  sheat-fishes,  to  which  also  the  electric  Malapterurus  or 
thunder-fish  belongs;  also  of  the  purely  tropical  family  of  the 
Characinje  and  Chromidse,  and  of  the  Mormyridse,  which  are 
confined  to  Africa.  The  Polypterus  hichir,  one  of  the  few 
living  representatives  of  the  ganoid  fishes  so  numerous  in  the 
ancient  world,  is  an  interesting  species,  as  is  also  the  balloon- 
fish  {Tetrodon  Fahaca),  a  marine  form  occurring  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  the  Red  Sea,  but  not  in  the  Mediterranean. 
During  the  overflow  the  fishes,  which  are  now  pretty  numer- 
ous, swim  into  all  the  canals  and  over  the  inundated  surfaces. 
When  the  water  begins  to  dry  the  poor  creatures  cannot  get 
back,  and  a  great  part  of  the  young  fry,  like  that  of  the  frogs, 
perishes;  they  are  now  taken  in  immense  numbers,  with  very 
little  trouble,  even  by  children.  The  ancient  Eg3^ptians  were 
very  well  acquainted  with  the  fish,  as  with  animals  generall}^; 
and  many  Nile  fishes,  as  also  those  of  the  neighbouring  Red 
Sea,  are  very  cleverly  represented  either  in  paintings  or  sculp- 
tures, particularly  such  as  were  sacred,  the  Oxyrhynchus  for 
instance,  with  its  remarkable  snout,  the  Lepidotus  (probably 
a  barbel),  the  Phagrus  or  eel,  and  the  Latus,  which  is  per- 
haps the  Malapterurus. 

Of  the  innumerable  race  of  insects  Egypt  exhibits  a  great 


THE   ANIMAL   WORLD.  153 

many  South  European  forms,  but  also  some  that  are  specifi- 
cally African,  especially  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  country  is 
remarkably  poor  in  large  butterflies,  but  it  possesses  those 
citizens  of  the  world  the  painted-ladies.  Small  moths  are 
much  more  abundant,  and  at  night  swarm  about  a  light. 
Among  the  beetles,  which  also  are  not  very  numerous,  the 
commonest  are  the  black  beetles  and  dung-beetles.  The 
best  known  is  the  sacred  ball-rolling  beetle  (Ateuchus  sacer), 
the  Scarabceus  of  the  ancients,  which  w^as  so  often  represented 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians  on  monuments  and  on  gems.  The 
ball  that  it  forms  is  in  the  almost  pantheistic  mythology  of 
Egypt  compared  with  the  matter  of  the  world,  which  is 
also  regarded  as  a  ball.  The  principle  of  light  and  of  the 
creative  power  of  nature,  the  Chepera,  whose  symbol  is  the 
same  beetle,  and  that  too  always  in  connection  with  the 
sun's  disk,  places  in  this  world  the  germs  of  being  and  of 
light,  as  the  beetle  lays  its  eggs  in  its  ball.  The  divinity 
Ptah,  that  is,  the  formative  and  quickening  power,  gives  to 
these  germs  form,  and  produces  the  structure  of  the  heavens 
and  the  earth.  There  are  also  beetles  of  very  splendid 
appearance  (Buprestis),  sand- beetles  (Cicindela),  beetles 
that  love  putrefaction  (Hister,  Bermestes),  and  during  the 
overflow  numerous  water-beetles. 

The  wasp-like  or  hymenopterous  insects  appear  in  fine 
large  forms.  The  Egyptian  bee  is  a  mere  variety  of  our 
own,  and  has  also  already  been  introduced  into  Europe. 
The  ancient  Egyptians  were  celebrated  bee-keepers,  but  api- 
culture is  now  of  little  importance.  The  inhabitants  eat  a 
great  deal  of  '"honey"  to  be  sure,  but  it  is  the  "black  honey'' 
or  molasses  of  the  sugar-cane;  "white"  honey  is  mostly  im- 
ported from  Arabia,  and  is  dear.  The  bee-keepers  are  said 
to  convey  their  hives  by  boats  and  camels  to  suitable  localities, 
even  into  other  provinces;  and  after  the  period  of  gathering 
is  over  to  bring  them  home  again.  To  this  order  of  insects 
belong  also  the  ants,  which  contrive  to  gain  entrance  into 
all  houses;  and  articles  of  food,  sugar  in  particular,  must  be 
hermetically  sealed,  hung  up,  or  protected  by  a  circuit  of 
water. 


154  UPPER   EGYPT. 

Of  the  Orthoptera  locusts  have  proved  a  scourge'to  Egypt 
from  the  most  ancient  times,  having  been  the  eighth  of  the 
ten  plagues  in  the  time  of  Moses;  among  the  most  trouble- 
some vermin  are  cockroaches,  including  the  American  in 
addition  to  native  species. 

Among  neuropterous  insects  there  abound  everywhere  on 
the  Nile  and  canals  ephemera  and  beautiful  dragon-flies, 
especially  a  red-coloured  species.  Termites  also  belong  to 
this  region,  but  it  is  hardly  their  proper  habitat,  and  they 
are  not  dangerous. 

The  Diptera  or  two- winged  flies  play  an  important  part, 
there  being  several  hundred  species  known.  The  common 
house-fly  is  nowhere  bolder  than  here,  and  adds  a  decided 
element  of  unpleasantness  to  a  residence  otherwise  so  agree- 
able in  this  warm  country.  Equally  annoying  is  the  mos- 
quito (Culex),  more,  perhaps,  through  the  nocturnal  hum  of 
its  multitudes,  which  almost  drives  the  novice  to  despair  as 
he  attempts  to  sleep  than  through  the  smart  and  soreness  pro- 
duced by  its  sting.  At  certain  periods  all  pools  of  stagnant 
water  are  full  of  its  worm-like  larvae,  and  they  swarm  also 
in  drinking-water,  which  must  be  strained  through  a  cloth 
before  drinking,  the  common  people  managing  this  by  placing 
their  coat-sleeve  between  their  lips  and  the  pitcher. 

More  than  enough  of  other  vermin  also  exist  in  the  land 
of  palms — such  as  fleas,  bugs,  and  lice  in  all  known  forms. 
To  these  must  be  added  also  scorpions,  tarantulas,  and  cen- 
tipedes, and  those  scourges  of  the  cattle,  gad-flies  and  ticks. 

Among  Crustacese,  instead  of  our  crayfish,  there  occur  in 
the  Nile  several  kinds  of  crabs  (Telphusa);  and  we  found  in 
the  Thebais  multitudes  of  a  kind  of  shrimp  (Palemon),  a 
genus  which  otherwise  is  found  only  in  the  sea  or  in  the 
lower  course  of  the  river.  At  the  time  of  the  overflow  a 
multitude  of  minute  crustaceans  are  developed  in  cavities 
that  are  gradually  filled  by  the  percolation  of  the  Nile  water, 
such  as  Phyllopoda,  water-fleas,  and  soldier-crabs,  with 
Rotifera  and  Infusoria.  In  a  few  weeks,  on  the  drying  of 
the  soil,  they  disappear  again,- apparently  without  leaving 
a  trace  behind. 


MONUMENTS  OF  ANTIQUITY.  155 

Lastly,  fresh- water  bivalves  also  are  absent,  while  fresh- 
water univalves  and  Annelida  (among  these  latter  the  Egyptian 
leech),  though  they  do  occur,  are  not  found  in  any  great 
variety  of  forms.  We  were  already  struck  with  the  mono- 
tonous character  of  the  country;  the  same  characteristic  runs 
through  its  fauna  and  flora,  which  display  a  remarkable 
poverty  of  species  in  almost  all  classes. 

MONUMENTS  OF  ANTIQUITY. 

We  have  approached  the  desert;  before  us  lies  a  field  of 
ruins.  Half-dressed  blocks  of  stone,  shattered  colossi  and 
their  members,  fallen  pillars,  walls  deeply  embedded  in  debris 
there  lie  sown;  everything  transportable  has  been  scattered 
through  all  the  world.  But  here  and  there  there  still  stand 
high  and  sublime  the  most  wonderful  architectural  monu- 
ments of  a  noble  and  hoar  antiquity,  reaching  back  thousands 
of  years.  Many  are  even  yet  so  well  preserved  that  we  can 
trace  the  plan,  and  by  putting  together  this  and  that  ruin 
gain  an  accurate  picture  of  the  former  condition  of  the  whole. 
The  buildings  we  find  are  almost  without  exception  works 
of  piety.  Of  private  buildings,  even  of  royal  palaces,  hardly 
any  now  exist;  they  were  built  of  materials  easily  destroyed, 
the  former  indeed  of  dried  clay  in  the  form  of  bricks.  The 
dwellings  of  the  eternal  gods,  however,  and  of  the  dead,  are 
so  strongly  built  that  even  the  barbarians  were  not  able  to 
master  them  completely,  though  their  rudeness  and  zeal  for 
destruction  were  almost  as  grand  as  the  art  and  the  construc- 
tive skill  of  those  who  erected  them. 

We  shall  not  enter  upon  particulars,  we  shall  relate  nothing 
farther  of  the  hundreds  of  sphinxes  which  form  the  entrances 
to  the  temples,  of  the  gigantic  monolithic  statues  of  polished 
granite  standing  or  sitting  like  guardians  of  the  sanctuary; 
of  the  graceful  high-soaring  obelisks,  the  gate-towers  or 
pylons  towering  over  all;  of  the  pillared  courts  and  halls, 
sometimes  with  no  fewer  than  thirty-six  columns  70  feet 
high  and  37  feet  round,  and  hewn  from  a  single  block;  and 
lastly,  of  the  building  in  the  rear  forming  the  holy  of  holies, 


156  UPPER  EGYPT. 

where  stood  in  mystery  the  image  of  the  god.  And  what 
we  have  just  mentioned  is  only  a  scheme,  a  system  of  a 
temple.  As  many  as  four  such  systems  may  lie  behind  one 
another,  and  the  great  whole,  a  temple  city,  is  surrounded 
by  a  w^ide  inclosure-wall.  No  description,  no  painting, 
can  reproduce  the  overpowering  impression  that  these  build- 
ings, matched  by  no  others  on  the  earth,  produce  upon  even 
the  most  uncultivated  spectator.  The  people  themselves 
ascribe  them  to  the  ginns  or  to  the  people  of  Pharaoh,  who, 
like  the  ancestors  of  the  human  race  from  Adam  and  Noah 
down  to  Abraham,  are  assumed  to  have  had  a  stature  above 
what  men  now  have.  Others  think  that  the  fathers  of  the 
Franks  once  lived  here,  and  that  the  reason  why  the  Franks 
visit  these  cities  so  often  is  that  they  may  look  upon  the 
native  country  and  the  works  of  their  ancestors.  The  Franks 
alone  are  believed  by  them  capable  of  producing  works  of 
such  grandeur. 

However,  it  is  not  merely  the  colossal  in  size,  but  also  the 
tastefulness  in  style — the  buildings  of  all  kinds  narrowing 
to  the  top,  the  columns  far  from  clumsy  notwithstanding 
their  thickness — as  well  as  the  almost  inconceivable  care  and 
industry  displayed  in  the  execution  of  details  (almost  all  the 
surfaces  of  the  walls,  towers,  and  pillars  being  entirely  covered 
with  painted  or  sculptured  figures),  that  compel  our  admira- 
tion. No  doubt  these  sculptures  and  paintings  do  not  alto- 
gether please  us.  We  expect  more  from  an  artist  than  cari- 
catures and  lay-figures.  We  are  reminded  of  the  antediluvian 
saurian  dragons,  the  megatheriums,  and  all  those  attempts 
of  the  'prentice  hand  of  Nature,  in  some  respects  incomplete 
and  generally  colossal.  The  figures  impress  us  as  being  hor- 
ribly stifi",  showing  no  natural  power,  formed  on  one  model, 
and  drawn  without  any  knowledge  of  perspective. 

But  if  we  get  over  our  original  aversion,  if  we  consider 
the  narrow  limits  that  were  imposed  upon  the  talented 
artists  by  the  hierarchy,  that  power  which  raises  rude  peoples 
but  keeps  down  those  that  have  raised  themselves;  if  we  go 
more  deeply  into  the  study  of  those  artistic  productions;  if 
we  turn  our  eyes  with  toleration   from  tliat  which  is  un- 


MONUMENTS   OF  ANTIQUITY.  157 

beautiful,  we  shall  still  find  much  that  is  beautiful,  but 
especially  much  that  is  true,  and  that  is  the  reason  why  these 
things  have  so  great  a  historical  value.  By  means  of  these 
representations,  in  connection  with  the  hieroglyphics  now 
generally  deciphered  with  ease  by  the  learned,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  a  few  truth-loving  historians  of  antiquity,  espe- 
cially Herodotus,  we  know  ancient  Egypt,  particularly  as 
regards  the  development  of  its  civilization,  better  than  we 
know  many  peoples  now  living,  even  better  perhaps  than  the 
people  living  on  the  Nile  at  the  present  day. 

Still  finer  and  more  distinct  do  we  find  the  pictures  and 
scenes  in  the  sepulchral  chambers  where  the  colours  have 
not  faded  and  become  obliterated,  but  are  as  bright  as  if 
painted  yesterday.  There  we  meet  also  with  the  men  of 
ancient  Egypt  and  many  animals  in  bodily  form  as  mummies, 
as  well  as  vegetable  products  and  implements  of  all  kinds 
which  had  been  put  into  the  tomb  along  with  the  dead. 
Although  these  are  met  with  in  the  sepulchral  chambers 
accessible  to  all,  they  do  not  lie  open  to  inspection  like  the 
wall-paintings,  the  statues,  and  the  buildings;  they  must  first 
be  found  or  dug  up,  or  bought  from  the  natives  and  Euro- 
peans that  drive  a  trade  in  them;  the  finest  specimens  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  national  collections  in  the  capitals  of  Europe, 
and  within  very  recent  times  also  a  splendid  collection  has 
been  formed  at  Cairo  (Bulak)  by  the  Egyptian  government, 
which  now  wishes  to  carry  on  this  new  kind  of  treasure- 
digging  alone,  and  has  forbidden  all  private  persons  to  engage 
in  it,  though  naturally  without  success.  Such  tombs  are 
exemplified  above  all  by  the  pyramids,  the  loftiest,  the  oldest, 
the  most  enduring  of  all  the  architectural  structures  erected 
by  man.  They  are  nowhere  to  be  met  with,  however,  in 
Upper  Egypt  proper — only  in  Middle  Egypt,  and  again  far 
up  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  in  ancient  Ethiopia. 

Thus   do    we   finish   our   wanderinra    in   the   wonderful 

o 

Thebais,  and  return  to  the  point  from  whence  we  set  out, 
rich  in  observations  on  the  country,  on  its  natural  phenomena, 
and  on  its  inhabitants  both  of  to-day  and  of  former  times. 


CHAPTER    III. 

WORKING  DAYS  AND   HOLIDAYS, 
DAYS   OF   JUBILEE  AND    DAYS   OF   MOURNING. 

WORKING-DAY   LIFE   OF  THE  COMMON   PEOPLE. 

In  Upper  Egypt  the  life  of  the  ordinary  inhabitant  of  the 
towns  is  passed  in  a  simple  and  uniform  manner.  Before 
sunrise  he  leaves  his  couch,  performs  the  morning  ablutions 
enjoined  by  his  religion,  and  repeats  his  early  pra^^er.  To 
say  his  morning  prayer  after  sunrise  is  forbidden  by  the 
ordinances  of  his  religion,  and  to  allow  the  sun  to  rise  above 
one's  slumbering  head  is  universally  regarded  as  prejudicial 
to  health.  He  then  drinks  his  cup  of  coifee  and  smokes  his 
pipe,  either  at  home  or  in  the  public  coffee-house.  His 
breakfast,  which  he  takes  after  his  coffee  (though  sometimes 
before  it),  consists  of  the  remains  of  his  meal  of  the  previous 
evening,  or  of  cakes  and  milk,  or  for  a  trifle  he  procures  from 
the  market  the  ever  ready  national  dish  oiful,  that  is,  stewed 
beans.  He  then  engages  in  his  vocations,  buys,  sells,  writes, 
works,  or  moves  about,  all  in  the  most  comfortable,  quiet, 
and  deliberate  manner.  "What  is  not  done  to-day  may  be 
to-morrow  " — in  good  Arabic,  hohra  in  shah  Allah  (to-morrow 
if  God  please) — stands  written  on  his  forehead  in  large  letters. 
The  most  urgent  affairs  leave  alwaj^s  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
free  in  which  to  gossip  with  acquaintances  over  coffee  and  a 
pipe,  be  it  in  retail-shop,  workshop,  or  ofiice.  And  if  many 
acquaintances  turn  up  the  more  numerous  grow  these  quar- 
ters-of-an-hour.  Now  and  again  he  has  no  work,  or  no  desire 
to  do  it,  and  then  he  drags  himself  from  one  friend  to  the 
other.  Bread  for  himself  and  his  family  will  no  doubt  turn 
up;  rohinna  Jcerim — "the  Lord  is  gracious  (or  liberal);"  it  is 
but  little  he  requires,  and  in  case  of  necessity  his  soft-hearted 
neighbour  will  not  allow  him  to  go  supperless  to  bed.  Even 
before  the  mid-day  call  of  the  muezzin  from  the  minaret,  he 


WORKING-DAY  LIFE  OF  THE  COMMON   PEOPLE.         159 

lias  made  his  preparations  for  the  hour  of  prayer,  and  after 
the  performance  of  his  devotions  he  returns  home  and  enjoys 
his  simple  dinner.  This  consists  for  the  most  part  only  of 
bread  with  fruits  or  with  white  country  cheese,  milk,  salt 
fish,  or  molasses  (the  so-called  black  honey). 

He  takes  care  not  to  make  his  mid- day  sleep  too  short, 
especially  in  the  long  warm  days  of  summer,  and  he  lies 
down  in  his  house  or  in  his  shop,  in  the  cafe,  or  in  any  shady 
spot  in  the  open  air;  at  this  time  the  streets  and  markets 
become  deserted.  Not  till  well  through  the  afternoon  does 
he  again  move,  when  he  begins  the  second  portion  of  the 
day  as  he  did  the  first,  with  ablutions,  prayers,  and  coffee, 
afterwards  bestirring  himself  with  some  energy  to  make  up 
during  the  remainder  of  the  day  for  the  time  he  has  dreamed 
and  trifled  away.  For  this  remainder  is  but  short,  and  with 
the  last  rays  of  the  setting  sun  the  call  from  the  minaret  is 
again  heard,  the  trader  shuts  his  shop,  the  workman  flings 
by  his  tool,  the  scholar,  the  writer,  and  the  man  of  learning 
shut  their  books.  This  dawdling  habit,  which,  in  the  pro- 
vince, at  least,  is  the  rule,  is  not,  however,  solely  the  result 
of  indolence,  but  arises  more  from  the  fact  that  little  trade 
or  industry  exists,  and  the  want  of  a  regular  weekly  day  of 
rest  is  also  not  without  blame.  The  natives  when  necessary 
often  display  the  greatest  ardour  and  even  steady  persever- 
ance. 

The  cultivation  of  the  fields  allows  the  countryman  less 
leisure  for  the  dolce  far  niente,  but  even  he  does  not  over- 
work himself  From  the  mellowness  and  fertility  of  the 
soil  his  labour  is  light  enough  when  compared  with  that  of 
a  northern  peasant,  and  chiefly  consists  in  the  artificial 
watering  of  the  land,  effected  mostly  by  the  labour  of  young 
people  or  of  cattle.  When  he  can  the  countryman  also  takes 
his  hours  of  idleness,  and  sleeps,  and  gossips,  and  sings.  He 
too  is  never  in  a  hurry.  This  slowness  of  action,  intimately 
connected  as  it  is  with  fatalism,  is  as  intolerable  to  a  Euro- 
pean who  is  in  haste,  as  it  is  beneficial  to  one  who  wishes  to 
rest  a  little  from  the  hurry  and  scurry  of  the  West. 

After  his  evening  devotions  the  dweller  in  the  town  moves 


160  UPPER   EGYPT. 

homeward  to  his  house,  where  his  supper  is  already  awaiting 
him.  At  this  meal,  which  is  generally  the  principal  meal  of 
the  day,  he  quite  acts  the  gourmand.  His  wife  brings  it  to 
him  on  a  round  wooden  board  elevated  on  pieces  of  wood  or 
short  feet  (tahlieh) ;  among  richer  people  a  shield-like  metal 
plate  (sanieh)  is  used  instead.  The  basis  of  the  meal  is  bread 
made  of  wheat  or  millet  flour,  or  hot  unleavened  cakes — of 
which  he  devours  incredible  quantities — baked  over  a  fire  of 
dung.  His  wife  has  also  boiled  or  fried  for  him  a  fish  with 
onions  and  oil,  or  there  lies  in  the  pot  a  young  pigeon  or  a 
fowl,  the  juice  of  which  tastes  excellently  when  the  cakes  are 
dipped  in  it.  Sometimes  also  a  small  piece  of  mutton,  bufialo, 
camel,  or  goat  flesh  has  been  procured,  with  which  the 
soaked  bamiyehs  or  the  viscous-juiced,  spinach-like  moluchieh 
are  cooked.  These,  however,  are  the  more  expensive  viands, 
and  in  the  evening  also  people  on  ordinary  occasions  are 
satisfied  with  the  ful,  which  has  become  so  much  a  national 
dish,  and  which  (beans  in  general),  according  to  Herodotus, 
was  forbidden  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  or  at  least  to  the 
priests,  and  hence  also  to  the  Pythagoreans.  Other  dishes 
are  such  as  lentils  boiled  in  water  without  flesh,  ful  with 
moluchieh,  a  thick  flour  paste,  coarsely  ground  barley  or 
wheat,  a  cake  made  with  butter,  an  omelet,  fruit,  roasted 
grain,  salt,  and  caraway,  and  especially  raw  onions.  All 
these  except  ful  were  also  eaten  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
with  the  addition  of  papyrus  and  lotus.  The  consumption 
of  lentils  was  so  general  that  Strabo  believed  that  the  num- 
mulites  of  the  mountains  were  the  fossilized  remains  of  the 
lentils  used  by  the  labourers.  Whenever  it  is  possible  two 
or  three  kinds  of  dishes  must  be  on  the  table,  and  the  inha- 
bitant of  the  town  tastes  of  them  indiscriminately,  taking 
a  piece  now  from  this,  now  from  that. 

After  the  evening  meal  our  citizen  either  remains  at  home 
enjoying  a  dignified  ease  in  his  harem,  or  he  takes  up  his 
position  before  his  house,  stretched  out  in  the  dust  of  the 
street,  or  squatting  amidst  a  knot  of  peaceful  neighbours;  less 
frequently  he  visits  the  cafe  again,  or  calls  on  a  friend  in  his 
house  or  court-yard  if  he  has  a  friend  able  and  ready  to 


LIFE   OF  THE  WOMEN.  161 

gather  his  friends  around  him  for  a  social  meeting  in  the 
evenino^.  The  lio-ht  of  the  moon  and  stars  suffices,  or  if  in 
winter  they  must  retreat  into  tlie  dark  chamber,  the  weak 
glimmer  of  an  oil-lamp.  In  this  country  nothing  is  known 
of  nocturnal  labours  either  of  hand  or  head  even  among  the 
learned,  and  the  many  blind  and  blear-eyed  people  that  here 
wander  about  have  not  contracted  their  ailments  through 
overstraining  their  eyes.  As  to-day  is,  so  is  to-morrow,  and 
the  most  momentous  events  passing  in  the  great  world  here 
make  on  most  people  no  impression  whatever.  For  it  is  only 
a  very  few  that  receive  a  newspaper,  and  still  fewer  under- 
stand it,  partly  because  its  language  is  too  fine,  and  there- 
fore not  suited  to  the  mass,  partly  because  the  necessary 
previous  knowledge  of  every  kind  is  absent.  Among  the 
ancient  Egyptians  the  common  people,  such  as  artisans,  were 
forbidden  under  severe  penalties  to  mingle  in  politics.  It  is 
only  the  most  urgent  necessity  that  causes  the  citizen  to  take 
a  journey,  and  when  he  does  travel  he  makes  a  pilgrimage 
to  Meccah,  or,  at  most,  goes  to  some  other  country  in  which 
Islam  prevails.  For  in  the  land  of  the  Franks  something 
would  every  instant  come  into  collision  with  his  ideas  and 
customs;  he  would  have  to  eat,  if  not  swine's  flesh,  yet  dishes 
in  which  swine's  fat  forms  an  ingredient;  he  would  have  to 
eat  carrion  (that  is,  the  flesh  of  animals  strangled,  and  not 
slaughtered  with  an  invocation  to  God);  he  would  not  have 
the  proper  conditions  for  the  performance  of  his  religious 
duties,  such  as  his  ablutions  and  prayer  five  times  a  day,  nor 
any  mosque  or  muezzin.  If  he  ever  happens  to  have  been 
in  Europe,  or  even  in  a  town  in  which  the  Frankish  mode  of 
life  prevails,  he  never  ceases  to  tell  his  countrymen  of  the 
ridiculous  and  preposterous  things  he  saw  there,  of  course 
not  without  admitting  that  there  was  much  good  also, 
especially  if  there  be  a  Frank  among  his  audience.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  had  a  still  stronger  prejudice  and  fana- 
ticism against  foreign  people  and  foreign  things. 

LIFE  OF  THE  WOMEN. 

Though  the  members  of  the  opposite  sex  certainly  do  not 

11 


162  UPPER  EGYPT. 

groan  and  languish  under  the  burden  of  their  daily  labours, 
yet  they  do  not,  as  the  common  descriptions  of  harem  life 
lead  us  to  believe,  recline  the  live-long  day  on  the  soft  divan 
enjoying  the  dolce  far  niente,  adorned  with  gold  and  jewels, 
smoking,  and  supporting  upon  the  yielding  pillow  those  arms 
that  indolence  makes  so  plump,  while  the  eunuchs  and  female 
slaves  stand  before  them  watching  their  every  sign,  and 
anxious  to  spare  them  the  slightest  movement.  Such  sloth- 
ful dames  may  indeed  be  found  here  and  there  in  the  harems 
of  the  great,  but  are  not  confined  to  this  country.  People 
fall  again  and  again  into  the  mistake  of  comparing  the  life 
of  the  women  of  our  middle  ranks  with  that  of  those  that 
occupy  the  harems  of  the  great!  The  care  of  house  and 
family  lies  much  more  heavily  upon  the  women  here,  and 
there  is  enough  to  attend  to  even  if,  being  assisted  by  female 
slaves,  as  is  the  case  in  the  higher  ranks,  they  have  not  to 
put  to  their  hands  themselves,  and  confine  themselves  only 
to  giving  orders.  Cooking,  baking,  sewing,  embroidering, 
washing,  and  scouring  must  be  carried  on,  and  children  must 
be  attended  to  here  as  well  as  elsewhere — there  is  no  reading 
nor  pianoforte  playing,  however. 

Before  sunrise  women  and  children  are  already  awake  and 
moving,  many  indeed  under  cover  of  the  dark  gra}^  dawn  pro- 
ceed to  the  river  to  bathe  and  wash  themselves.  The  toilette, 
however,  is  not  usually  the  first  thing  that  demands  attention; 
the  kitchen  must  first  be  attended  to  in  order  to  let  the  hus- 
band away  to  his  occupation.  A  complete  toilette  including 
combing  and  plaiting  of  the  hair  is  not  in  many  cases  indulged 
in  every  day  even  among  ladies  of  the  better  class.  In  this 
way  time  and  trouble  are  spared,  but  a  certain  class  of  vermin 
are  left  almost  unmolested,  and  establish  themselves  often  so 
firmly  among  the  black  locks  of  the  Eastern  beauties  that 
they  cannot  be  extirpated  notwithstanding  the  raids  that  are 
made  upon  them  from  time  to  time — even  with  the  application 
of  gray  mercurial  ointment.  As  a  rule  the  toilette  is  associ- 
ated with  a  bath,  to  which  praiseworthy  enjoyment  high  and 
low  are  attached,  whether  it  be  taken  in  the  public  bathing 
establishment,  in  the  river,  the  sea,  or  at  home  by  means  of 


LIFE   OF  THE   WOMEN.  16-3 

a,  shallow  tub,  and  by  pouring  warm  water  over  the  body 
and  scrubbing  it  with  soap  and  date  bast.  In  the  public 
baths  certain  hours  or  days  are  set  apart  for  the  fair  sex, 
and  here  many  women  spend  half  days  bathing,  adorning 
themselves,  smoking,  and  gossiping.  At  these  times  no  male, 
not  even  a  eunuch  would  dare  to  set  foot  in  the  apart- 
ments. 

In  other  respects  also  the  women  are  by  no  means  robbed 
of  social  pleasures.  They  visit  each  other  often  enough,  if 
possible  early  in  the  morning,  and  are  wont  to  remain  half 
a  day,  a  whole  day,  or  even  several  days,  though  both  parties 
may  be  in  the  same  town.  They  smoke,  drink  coffee  (the 
latter  being  less  in  use  among  the  women  than  among  the 
men — the  opposite  to  what  holds  good  among  the  Franks), 
gossip,  show  their  ornaments  and  finery,  tell  stories  and 
wonderful  tales,  sew,  embroider  (but  do  not  knit),  sing  and 
dance,  or  better,  make  some  one  sing  and  dance  before  them 
(since  a  well-conducted  lady  ought  neither  to  be  seen  nor 
heard,  and  therefore  should  not  sing),  laugh  and  make  merry 
— in  short  the  harem  so  greatly  pitied  elsewhere  enjoy  life, 
but  on  the  sole  condition,  that  no  man  be  present!  They 
are  less  often  allowed  to  take  a  walk  in  the  open  air;  some — 
and  this  is  considered  a  great  virtue — never  leave  the  house 
after  their  marriage.  Their  lady  friends  come  to  visit  them 
instead,  and  as  almost  every  house  in  these  regions  has  its 
court-yard  or  a  terrace,  women  are  by  no  means  kept  out  of  the 
open  air.  Moslim  women  are  generally  excused  from  the 
burdensome  prayers  of  the  men,  and  pious  or  even  hypocri- 
tical women  are  in  the  Moslim  female  world  a  great  rarity; 
indeed  they  scarcely  know  the  most  important  doctrines  of 
their  religion.  Piety  in  them  is  even  looked  upon  with 
dislike. 

At  mid-day  the  husband  always  eats  alone,  or  with  his 
boys  or  guests.  Immediately  afterwards,  however,  the  wife 
again  comes  into  honour  since  her  lord  likes  to  enjoy  his  siesta 
in  the  chambers  of  the  harem.  After  sunset  no  respectable 
woman  must  show  herself  outside  the  house,  even  though 
veiled  and  attended,  and  now,  or  some  hours  later,  the  husband 


164;  UPPER   EGYPT. 

again  repairs  to  the  sacred  apartments  of  those  denied  to  all 
but  himself. 

In  the  feeling  of  the  Moslim  the  harems  are  not  citadels 
of  jealous}^,  in  which  the  husband  keeps  penned  up  a  con- 
siderable flock  of  luxurious  indolent  beauties.    This  represen- 
tation, so  current  in  the  land  of  the  Franks,  is  spurned  by 
the  Oriental  with  indignation.    The  women's  apartments  are 
rather  places  sacred  and  inviolable,  where  the  harim  (sin- 
gular hurmie;  harem  is  meaningless),  that  is  "the  prohibited," 
the  women,  the  faTnily,  and  therefore  the  husband's  dearest 
treasure  must  be  guarded  from  profane  glances  and  frivolous 
influences.     As  above  remarked,  they  are  by  no  means  im- 
prisoned, with  the  exception  perhaps  of  the  women  of  the 
highest  ranks,  they  are  merely  kept  and  brought  up,  so  that 
they  may  shut  themselves  ofi*  by  their  veils  both  in  the  home 
and  outside  from  all  strange  men;  among  themselves  they 
enjoy  the  freest  intercourse.     Such  a  harem  existed  already 
among  the  ancient  Greeks  under  the  less  hostilely  regarded 
name  of  gynaikeion,  and  even  yet  the  Greek  w^omen  are  not 
completely  emancipated,  and  are  very  strictly  looked  after. 
Besides,  the  native  Christian  women,  at  least  in  Upper  Egypt, 
are   even   more   than   those    of  the    Moslim    ''prohibited." 
Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  however,  they  were  very  free, 
and  went  unveiled.     In  consequence  of  being  thus  shut  up 
the  oriental  women  have  almost  come  to  form  a  separate  caste, 
whose  laws  the  men  have  to  respect.     This  caste  has  its 
female  sheikhs,  for  which  dignity  the  midwives  and  bathing 
women  in  particular  are  selected,  has  its  medical  art,  its 
songs  and  music,  its  fashions,  almost  its  own  language  indeed, 
at  least  so  far  as  expressions  are  concerned,  and  unlimited 
rule  over  the  little  children  belonojinor  to  it.     From  the  round 
of  its  meetings  even  the  master  of  the  house  is  inexorably 
excluded.     Of  course,  according  to  the  law,  the  woman  is  the 
servant  of  the  man;  she  has  not  the  right  to  sit  at  a  common 
table  with  her  husband;  on  the  street  he  shyly  avoids  his 
veiled  spouse;  she  is  even  treated  by  religion  as  an  object 
of  pollution,  contact  with  which  demands  a  full  bath  before 
the  believer  can  again  perform  his  devotions;  and  when  men- 


LIFE   OF   THE  WOMEN.  165 

tion  is  made  of  her  it  is  usually  accompanied,  as  in  the  case 
of  other  unclean  things,  with  a  "saving  your  presence"  (essak 
Allah,  literally  "God  honour  you");  with  regard  to  inherit- 
ance she  is  regarded  as  only  a  half  person;  she  is  generally 
excluded  from  the  mosque,  and  as  a  rule  is  not  required  to 
pray,  or  to  know  more  than  is  necessary  for  housekeeping. 
Still,  in  the  lands  of  Islam,  as  well  as  in  the  rest  of  the  world, 
the  weaker  sex  has  subjected  the  stronger  in  certain  fields. 
Here,  too,  there  are  plenty  of  men  who  are  under  petticoat 
government.  The  wife  is  significantly  called  sitt,  that  is, 
"mistress,"  and  even  the  husband  calls  her  so.  The  wife  has 
€ven  duties  to  perform  towards  the  outer  world  in  so  far  as 
she  has  to  manage  the  housekeeping.  When,  in  the  absence 
of  her  husband  a  guest  has  to  be  entertained,  meals  are  served 
up  in  the  name  of  the  wife  through  her  servants  or  children, 
she  inquires  after  the  name  and  health  of  the  guest,  but  she 
herself  does  not  appear. 

Her  sphere  of  activity  is  entirely  limited  to  the  house,  and 
she  fulfils  her  mission  with  all  the  more  contentment  that 
the  pleasures  of  the  great  world  are  unknown  to  her.  She 
is  not  unsusceptible  to  the  attractions  of  dress  and  finery — 
her  sex  makes  this  a  matter  of  course — but  she  has  only  her 
husband  and  her  female  friends  to  shine  before,  and  that  sets 
■a  natural  limit  to  her  desires.  Her  longings  do  not  go  beyond 
her  state  of  half  freedom,  to  which  she  is  accustomed  from 
her  youth  up,  seclusion  is  not  regarded  by  her  as  a  restraint 
imposed  by  the  tj^rannical  men,  but  as  a  precept  of  morality, 
and  a  sudden  edict  of  emancipation  would  at  once  arouse  in 
the  harem  itself  as  much  indignation  and  resistance  as  a 
tightening  of  the  reins  among  the  ladies  of  civilization.  It 
is  not  to  be  denied  that  only  in  the  garden  of  freedom  can  a 
healthy  plant  thrive,  and  come  to  maturity  and  produce  fruit 
a  thousand  fold.  The  greenhouse  plant  never  feels  the  storm, 
but  it  remains  weakly  and  droops  at  the  slightest  breath 
of  unaccustomed  air  that  gains  entrance  from  the  outside 
by  some  crevice.  Yet  experience  teaches  that  a  goodly  number 
of  those  open-air  garden  plants  cannot  stand  their  freedom, 
and  perish  if  they  do  not  receive  strict  attention  and  care. 


166  UPPER  EGYPT. 


THE  FAMILY. 


Mohammed's  dictum  regarding  wine  is  also  true  of  love^ 
it  has  many  good  sides,  but  also  a  great  many  and  even  more 
that  are  bad  and  dangerous.  The  Prophet  has  therefore  cut 
Cupid's  wings  as  well  as  he  could;  by  the  armour  of  conceal- 
ment he  protected  the  sexes  from  the  swiftly  wounding 
arrow  of  the  god,  and  granted  to  his  faithful  believers  the 
joys  of  domestic  love  in  full,  perhaps  in  too  full,  measure  so 
soon,  and  to  as  great  an  extent  as  they  could  do  homage  to 
them.  Matches  are  made  early,  and  love's  thirst  is  usually 
quenched  in  an  orderly  and  legitimate  manner.  Fallen 
virgins,  illegitimate  children,  bachelors,  and  old  maids  hardly 
exist  in  Mohammedan  countries,  although  there  are  perhaps 
more  unfaithful  wives  and  husbands,  and  especially  wives 
who  have  gone  astray  and  been  divorced,  than  elsewhere. 
Existinor  rep'ulations  render  it  difficult  for  these  faithless 
members  of  both  sexes  to  meet  directly;  but  this  is  managed 
by  the  herd  of  procurers  and  procuresses,  who  are  compara- 
tively numerous  in  the  East,  though  held  in  the  deepest 
contempt.  "Women  contrive  to  meet  their  gallants,  even 
though  shut  up  in  a  box,"  says  the  Oriental  himself  in  a  very 
common  proverb,  as  well  as  in  many  a  tale.  Adultery  com- 
mitted by  a  woman  was  punished  with  drowning  down  to  a 
short  time  ago;  among  the  ancient  Egyptians  by  cutting  off  the 
nose.  But  the  Mussulman  is  proud  with  regard  to  the  above- 
mentioned  state  of  matters,  and  listens  with  scorn  to  the 
statistical  revelations  made  by  the  states  of  the  West,  which 
suffer  from  all  kinds  of  moral  sores  no  less  than  the  more 
dignified  "sick  man." 

Nothing  shall  here  be  said  in  approval  of  polygamy,  but 
to  those  who  have  had  lengthened  opportunities  for  watching 
its  effects  it  does  not  appear  as  a  rule  so  black  as  Western 
imagination  is  accustomed  at  a  distance  to  paint  it  A 
thorough  panegyric  would  perhaps  show  that  it  even  possesses 
some  advantages  on  moral  grounds;  and  in  the  West  also  it 
certainly  exists  in  some  social  circles.  In  the  East  it  has  pre- 
vailed from  the  earliest  times,  from  the  Bedouin  to  the  king^ 


THE   FAMILY.  167 

even  among  the  patterns  of  Godfearingness  in  all  times  and 
all  countries.  Though  a  man  has  several  wives,  that  is  not 
a  proof  of  his  unbridled  sensuality.  A  man  often  takes  an 
additional  wife  because  his  first  one  has  not  presented  him 
with  the  heirs  he  longs  for — sons  in  particular — as  was  the  case 
with  the  Prophet  himself;  or  matrimonial  relationships  have 
become  impossible  through  illness,  old  age  or  incompatibility. 
And  it  always  testifies  to  some  tenderness  of  feeling  when 
the  husband  will  not  put  away  his  first  wife  or  the  mother 
of  his  children.  This  step,  easy  as  the  law  makes  it,  is  resorted 
to  only  in  exceptional  cases,  especially  if  the  children  are 
still  alive.  The  great  ease  with  which  divorce  may  be 
effected  is  a  much  weaker  side  of  Mohammedanism,  and 
there  are  of  course  a  considerable  number  of  dissolute  fellows 
who  take  advantage  of  this  and  do  not  fill  their  houses  with 
expensive,  scolding,  legitimate  wives  (the  number  of  whom 
cannot  exceed  four),  but  indulge  their  passions  by  a  change 
of  wares,  be  they  free  or  slaves.  Some  men  get  as  far  as  a 
fifth  wife  without  ever  having  had  more  than  one  at  a  time. 
This  does  not  lower  a  man  in  the  estimation  of  the  people,  if 
he  does  not  do  anything  not  permitted  by  religion,  though 
it  will  be  easily  understood  that  such  a  person  is  often  unsuc- 
cessful in  his  wooings.  -  Any  one  may  keep  as  many  female 
slaves  as  he  pleases;  if  one  of  them  has  presented  him 
with  children,  however,  the  excellent  custom  that  prevails 
demands  that  he  shall  not  sell  her,  still  less  her  children,  who 
according  to  the  law  are  in  all  respects  legitimate.  The 
father  must  always  maintain  the  children  that  any  divorced 
wife  has  had  to  him.  The  question  of  expense,  therefore, 
forms  a  beneficial  check  upon  licentiousness,  and  from  this 
and  other  reasons  it  is  very  common  among  the  higher 
classes,  and  among  the  middle  and  lower  classes  almost  the 
rule,  for  a  man  to  live  his  whole  life  long  with  only  a  single 
wife.  Unfortunately  no  statistics  are  to  be  had  relating  to 
these  matters,  since  the  state  does  not  concern  itself  about 
matrimonial  affairs;  these  are  attended  to  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical judge  or  kadi. 

In  divorce  cases  this  functionary,  after  some  weak  attempts 


168  UPPER  EGYPT. 

at  reconciliation,  has  always  to  give  effect  to  the  expressed 
wish  of  the  husband.  The  wife  also  can  press  for  a  divorce, 
and  is  not,  therefore,  devoid  of  all  rights;  but  in  this  case, 
besides  losing  her  maintenance,  she  also,  as  a  rule,  loses  the 
jointure  that  would  otherwise  fall  to  be  paid  to  her  by  the 
husband  as  stipulated  in  the  marriage  contract.  The  divorce 
cannot  be  judicially  forced  from  the  husband,  he  must  say 
the  words  ''Thou  art  repudiated,"  and  if  he  will  not  do  so  he 
has  to  give  his  wife  a  het  sher  'ai,  that  is,  a  separate  dwelling 
and  maintenance;  it  is  a  kind  of  divorce  a  mensa  et  thoro. 
During  the  continuance  of  this  relationship  the  woman  can- 
not marry  again,  though  of  course  the  husband  can.  But 
during  the  proceedings,  with  which  a  multitude  of  laymen, 
both  summoned  and  unsummoned,  mix  themselves  up,  the 
husband  often  becomes  morally  pliant,  or  is  induced  by  cun- 
ning to  utter  the  words,  whereupon  the  case  at  once  comes 
to  an  end.  The  phrase  "thou  art  repudiated"  is  fatally 
momentous,  the  mere  utterance  of  it,  even  in  the  heat  of  a 
quarrel,  results  in  separation,  and  "thrice  repudiated"  even 
in  complete  divorce  (see  below).  If  a  person  writes  these 
words  down  and  in  joke  asks  a  Mohammedan  to  read  them, 
he  absolutely  refuses  to  read  them  aloud.  The  asseveration 
"by  repudiation,"  or  stronger  "by  threefold  repudiation,"  is 
equivalent  to  a  solemn  oath.  The  greater  number  of  disputes 
in  cases  of  matrimonial  separation  arise  on  account  of  the 
children,  whom  neither  the  father  nor  mother  would  like  to 
part  with.  They,  together  with  the  matter  of  expense,  are 
what  unites  most  closely  the  bonds  of  marriage,  otherwise 
so  loose.  Up  to  a  certain  age,  which  differs  among  the 
various  so-called  sects  of  Mohammedans — among  the  Hana- 
fites,  for  instance,  being  the  seventh  year,  among  the  Shafaites 
the  second — the  child  remains  witli  its  mother,  while  the 
father  pays  for  its  support,  and  in  return  has  the  right  of 
seeing  it  as  often  as  he  wishes.  Henceforth  the  father,  if  he 
has  satisfactorily  supported  it  hitherto,  can  take  the  child 
altogether  to  himself,  and  he  usually  does  so  if  it  is  a  boy. 

The  divorced  wife  returns  to  her  parents,  who  generally 
soon  succeed  in  lindinof  another  settlement  for  her.     In  a 


THE   FAMILY.  169 

great  many  cases  the  separation  is  only  temporary,  the  hus- 
band' and  wife  make  up  their  quarrel  and  come  together 
again  without  any  farther  formalities  than  the  consent  of  the 
kadi.  When  the  severest  form  of  divorce  has  been  pronounced, 
however,  namely,  with  the  formula  of  threefold  repudiation, 
a  reunion  becomes  not  such  an  easy  matter.  For  such  cases 
there  exists  the  well  known  and  peculiar  law  of  the  mostahill 
(literally  "permission-maker").  A  third  person  has  formally 
to  marry  the  divorced  woman  and  put  her  away  again,  where- 
upon the  husband  can  again  take  back  his  fdrmer  wife.  Men 
who  are  endowed  with  the  minimum  of  personal  advantages 
are  usually  selected  to  act  as  these  middle  men,  and  they  are 
paid  for  their  welcome  services.  Cases  of  this  sort  are  cer- 
tainly rare,  being  considered  disgraceful  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens also  that  the  pair  joined  in  this  momentary  marriage 
take  each  other's  fanc}^,  the  intermediary  will  not  give  up 
the  woman  joined  to  him,  and  no  power  can  tear  them 
asunder  if  they  do  not  wish  it.  The  law  just  mentioned  is 
said  to  be  founded  on  the  awakening  of  jealousy. 

The  man  of  the  middle  and  lower  ranks  who  has  more 
than  one  wife  usually  has  his  harem,  with  children  and 
attendants,  in  different  houses,  or  in  different  portions  of  the 
same  house  specially  constructed  for  the  purpose;  and  in  order 
to  give  satisfaction  to  all  parties,  a  good  polygamous  husband 
eats  and  sleeps  in  regular  alternation,  the  one  day  in  tlie 
house  of  one  wife,  the  next  in  that  of  another.  These  look 
upon  themselves  as  relatives,  and  from  time  to  time  pay  each 
other  at  least  ceremonial  visits.  Indeed  there  are  a  great 
many  examples  of  several  wives  living  together  peacefuHy, 
obediently,  and  free  from  jealousy.  Of  quarrels  arising  from 
jealousy  much  less  is  heard  than  one  would  have  beforehand 
assumed.  By  his  supreme  powers  the  husband  maintains 
order,  and  jealousy  frequently  takes  even  the  form  of  a 
praiseworthy  struggle  how  each  wife  may  appear  more  ami- 
able in  the  eyes  of  her  husband  than  her  rivals.  Most 
women  give  up  from  the  first  the  idea  of  requiring  their 
husband  to  remain  true  to  them,  and  jealous  women  are  even 
laughed  at  by  their  female  friends.     The  ideal  romantic  love 


170  UPPER  EGYPT. 

is  never  felt  by  the  Oriental;  he  condemns  it,  and  knows 
only  the  natural  sensual  love,  and  the  noblest  and  most 
practical,  the  love  of  a  husband,  often  very  true  and  deep. 
Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  monogamy  alone  seems  to 
have  been  practised;  on  the  other  hand  marriages  between 
brothers  and  sisters  were  allowed. 

To  the  modern  Egyptians,  the  monogamous  Copts,  as  well 
as  the  polygamous  Mohammedans,  kind-hearted  and  full  of 
feeling  as  they  are,  livel}^  family  affections  are  not  to  be 
denied.  The  niembers  of  a  family  usually  cling  tenderly  to 
each  other;  to  them  a  foreign  country  is  equivalent  to  misery, 
and  a  lengthy  separation  a  misfortune.  Veneration  is  deeply, 
to  us  as  it  often  seems  almost  tyrannically,  impressed  upon 
children.  In  the  presence  of  a  father  it  would  be  disrespectful 
to  smoke,  to  sit,  and  to  speak  more  than  is  necessary.  If 
there  are  guests  the  son  does  not  eat  with  them  but  serves, 
it  is  only  by  the  special  desire  of  a  guest  that  he  joins  the 
party.  The  younger  brother  has  to  behave  in  a  similar 
manner  towards  his  elder.  Where  circumstances  permit,  and 
especially  therefore  in  the  country,  all  the  members  of  the 
family  up  to  old  age  inhabit  a  common  dwelling,  living  in 
patriarchal  style.  The  old  father  or  mother,  no  longer  able 
to  work,  lives  with  the  vigorous  son,  and  free  from  care 
awaits  the  end;  and  additional  children,  instead  of  being 
looked  on  as  a  burden,  are  welcomed  by  parents  as  a  blessing 
from  Heaven,  which  thus  bestows  on  them  so  many  additional 
supporters.  Living  the  simple  and  temperate  life  they  do, 
great  ages  are  common;  according  to  the  statements  of  the 
people  90  to  100  years  are  no  rarity,  but  these  reports  are 
not  to  be  depended  on,  since  scarcely  anybody  knows  the  day 
or  even  the  year  of  his  birth.  Early  marriages  being  the  rule, 
generations  follow  each  other  so  rapidly  that  it  is  not  rare  for 
the  great-great-grandfather  to  see  his  great-great-grandson. 

The  idyllic  patriarchal  life  of  union  is  on  the  whole  the 
rule,  but  there  are  also  many  exceptions.  Here  as  elsewhere 
there  are  cruel  mothers,  shrews,  ungrateful  children,  brothers 
at  deadly  enmity,  scolding  mothers-in-law,  husbands  that 
beat  their  wives,  wives  that  beat  their  husbands. 


RAMADAN.  171 


FRIDAY. 


The  week  is  over,  and  on  the  eve  of  Friday  the  muezzin^ 
proclaims,  by  a  variation  in  words  and  melody,  the  day  of 
the  Lord,  which  begins  at  this  hour,  and  consequently  on 
Thursday  evening.  But  neither  now  nor  yet  next  morning 
does  any  change  in  the  physiognomy  of  the  working  day 
manifest  itself  The  retail-dealer  sits  in  his  shop,  the  artisan 
knocks  and  hammers,  the  broker  shouts,  the  countryman 
brings  his  fruits  as  at  other  times,  it  is  but  a  very  few  that 
have  even  changed  their  clothes.  Towards  mid-day  the 
muezzin  calls  repeatedly,  not  as  at  other  times  only  once, 
and  now  the  town  assumes  a  remarkably  deserted  appear- 
ance, in  the  streets  and  market-places  only  idle  boys  make  a 
stir,  the  whole  grown-up  male  population  hurry  to  the 
mosques.  Here,  sitting  in  rows  upon  the  ground,  the  con- 
gregation listen  to  the  exhortations  of  the  uneducated  lay- 
preacher  in  the  pulpit,  who  but  a  short  time  ago  sat  in  his 
shop  and  wove  or  worked  at  his  trade  of  tailor  or  carpenter, 
while  the  attendants  on  a  platform  chant  formulas  in  con- 
firmation of  his  words.  A  short  half  hour  and  the  whole 
service,  tlie  sermon  of  the  preacher,  his  official  supplication, 
and  the  genuflections  of  the  worshippers,  are  at  an  end.  The 
remainder  of  the  day  is  also  devoted  to  ordinary  occupations, 
the  Prophet  having  so  permitted.  Only  the  schools  and  the 
public  offices  remain  closed. 

As  with  the  Friday  so  with  many  other  days  held  sacred 
by  the  Mohammedans;  the  uninitiated  is  often  made  aware 
of  them  only  by  means  of  slices  of  bread  and  butter,  which 
a  friendly  neighbour  sends  to  the  house,  or,  as  at  the  Ashoora, 
by  a  kind  of  cosmopolitan  cake,  consisting  of  flour,  wheat, 
barley,  walnuts,  hazel-nuts,  raisins,  rose-perfume,  cinnamon, 
ginger,  and  all  other  possible  fruits  and  spices. 

RAMADAN. 

But  now  comes  the  month  of  fasting — the  sacred  Ramadan. 
On  the  evening  of  the  day  preceding  the  first  of  this  month 


172  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  people  begin  to  be  in  an  active  and  excited  state. 
Numerous  groups  collect  in  the  open  spaces  and  scan  the 
western  horizon  to  see  if  they  can  discover  the  new  moon; 
since  it  is  only  on  the  testimony  of  a  Moslim  that  he  has 
seen  the  new  moon — though  he  may  be  a  man  of  no  account 
whatever — that  the  festival  can  begin.  Even  the  most  accu- 
rate astronomical  calculation,  so  far  as  this  is  possible,  has 
not  the  same  authorit}^  The  rising  and  setting  of  the  new 
as  well  as  of  the  full  moon  are  not  regulated  exactly  by  those 
of  the  sun,  since  the  synodic  or  lunar  month  contains  29  days, 
12  hours,  and  44  minutes,  and  the  time  of  conjunction,  when 
moon,  earth,  and  sun  are  in  a  right  line,  happens  at  very  dif- 
ferent hours  of  the  day  in  different  months.  The  time  at 
which  the  new  moon,  so  eagerly  looked  for  by  the  Moham- 
medans, first  reappears  after  astronomical  new-moon  also 
depends  upon  the  season  of  the  year ;  it  is  seen  earliest  in 
the  spring  months,  for  reasons  depending  upon  the  position 
of  the  moon's  path  relatively  to  that  of  the  sun.  An  astro- 
nomer says  that  he  has  not  seen  the  moon  earlier  than  forty 
hours  after  nor  later  than  twenty-seven  hours  before  the 
astronomical  new-moon,  but  that  by  a  combination  of  all 
favourable  circumstances  this  may  even  happen  within 
twenty-four  hours,  and  travellers  maintain  that  they  have 
seen  the  old  moon  on  the  morning  and  the  new  moon  on  the 
eveninof  of  the  same  dav.  To  these  considerations  one  is  led 
who  every  year  looks  on,  while  the  Moslimin  thus  eagerly 
and  for  the  most  part  uselessly  watch  the  heavens.  Since 
the  official  calendar  pays  no  attention  to  this  important 
method  of  determining  Ramadan,  it  simply  gives,  now  to  one 
month,  now  to  another,  thirty  or  twenty-nine  days  in  order  to 
make  up  the  total  of  354.  Accordingly,  when  the  first  of 
Ramadan  occurs  in  the  calendar,  it  is  by  no  means  certain 
whether  at  the  same  time  the  new  moon  is  visible.  The 
more  scientific  among  the  heads  of  the  province  often  actually 
cause  the  fast  to  be  altered  a  day  till  the  moon  is  perfectly 
visible  in  the  evening  sky.  When  Ramadan  falls  in  winter, 
at  which  season  the  sky  is  often  clouded,  and  in  high  lati- 
tudes, where  it  is  gloom}^  for  weeks  at  a  time,  the  determina- 


RAMADAN.  173 

tion  of  Ramadan  is  attended  with  still  greater  difficulties. 
In  modern  times,  however,  the  inhabitants  of  the  province 
are  informed  by  telegraph  from  the  capital,  when  the  new 
moon  became  visible  there,  and  that  generally  at  a  time  before 
even  the  most  sharp-sighted  among  the  country  people  could 
descry  anything. 

So  soon  as  it  is  believed  to  be  certain  that  the  new  moon 
has  appeared,  in  towns  where  there  are  cannon  a  loud  report 
proclaims  the  commencement  of  the  fast,  and  from  this  moment 
the  Moslim  becomes  quite  a  changed  man.  Henceforward 
he  leads  more  of  a  nocturnal  life.  In  the  morning  during 
the  fast  only  a  few  persons  belonging  to  the  lowest  classes 
are  seen,  as  in  the  large  towns  of  Europe;  porters,  water- 
carriers,  day-labourers,  ass  and  camel  drivers,  go  to  their 
occupations;  the  children,  who  are  not  expected  to  fast,  and 
the  infidels  have  possession  of  the  streets;  the  markets  and 
cafes  are  deserted,  the  shops  and  offices  shut.  Gradually  a 
person  here  and  there  rises,  and,  with  eyelids  weighed  down 
by  sleep,  crawls  languidly  along,  and  the  shops  begin  to  open. 
Such  things  as  are  absolutely  necessary  are  bought,  but  trade 
remains  extremely  dull,  and  when  a  person  asks  to  see  some 
goods  the  shop-keeper  sulkily  lays  aside  the  Koran,  which 
he  had  been  conning  over  to  himself  aloud,  moving  his  head 
to  and  fro,  and  scarcely  deigns  to  give  the  customer  a  single 
glance.  ''•  When  ye  fast,  be  not  as  the  hypocrites  of  a  sad 
countenance;  for  they  disfigure  their  faces,  that  they  may 
appear  unto  men  to  fast"  (Mat.  vi.  16). 

In  the  forenoon  nature  makes  herself  felt  as  being  deprived 
of  her  proper  night's  rest;  from  noon  onwards  hunger  and 
thirst  also  demand  to  be  appeased.  Not  a  bite,  not  a  sup, 
not  an  odour  must  enter  the  body  that  is  clad  in  the  armour 
of  fasting.  The  most  exquisite  dainties  would  not  be  able 
to  seduce  a  fasting  Moslim.  When  he  passes  an  infidel  who 
is  smoking  he  carefully  shuts  both  mouth  and  nose,  and  it  is 
not  many  years  yet  since  any  one  who  dared  to  smoke  before 
a  fasting  Moslim  would  have  suflfered  for  it.  Unless  he  is 
very  unwell  (and  then  he  is  freed  from  fasting)  a  Moham- 
medan takes  no  medicine  during  the  day,  he  even  refuses  to 


174  UPPER   EGYPT. 

allow  an  eye-lotion  to  be  dropped  upon  his  sore  eyes,  and  the 
doctor  may  as  well  desist  at  once  from  attempting  a  regular 
treatment  during  this  month.  Anointing  the  head,  bathing, 
cleaning  out  the  ears,  and  even  looking  into  a  mirror,  are 
also  considered  sinful  by  some.  It  need  scarcely  be  men- 
tioned that  matrimonial  duties,  were  it  even  a  kiss,  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  labours  of  the  day.  Perjury,  stealing,  and 
lying  are  trifles  compared  with  the  deadly  sin  of  cooling  the 
parched  tongue  with  a  single  drop  of  water  during  a  day  in 
Ramadan.  Eamadan  is  the  touch-stone  of  the  true  Moslim, 
and  there  are  very  few  who  openly  at  least  venture  to  break 
the  fast.  Even  the  women,  who  know  nothing  more  of  their 
religion  than  the  words  Mohammed,  paradise,  hell-fire,  and 
unbelievers,  fast  likewise  (though  not  in  all  places);  if  their 
menses  intervene,  however,  they  become  unclean,  and  fasting 
then  becomes  sinful.  A  person  who  is  sick  and  travelling 
does  not  require  to  fast,  and  can  make  up  for  lost  time  on 
another  occasion. 

The  nearer  evening  approaches  the  more  does  the  traffic 
on  the  street  increase.  It  is  comical  to  see  the  eagerness 
with  which  the  faster  awaits  the  minute  that  allows  him 
again  the  wished- for  refreshment.  One  man, for  instance,  may 
be  seen  standing  with  a  live  coal  held  above  the  newly-filled 
bowl  of  his  pipe,  another  holds  a  piece  of  date-bread  or  a  cup 
of  coffee  an  inch  from  his  mouth.  The  cannon  roars,  and  the 
dainty  is  at  once  bolted.  As  the  thunder  of  the  cannon  clears 
off*  the  clouds  from  the  face  of  the  sky,  so  does  it  cheer  up 
the  gloomy  lenten- visages  of  the  sons  of  Islam.  The  streets 
again  become  empty,  since  at  home  there  is  already  an  abun- 
dant repast  prepared;  of  fat  mutton,  and  many  other  varieties 
of  dishes,  of  spices,  and  sweets  of  all  kinds,  there  is  abun- 
dance at  the  tables  of  the  rich;  while  the  man  of  the  lower 
classes,  who  can  seldom  afford  to  buy  meat  at  other  seasons 
of  the  year,  has  been  saving  up  for  months  in  order  to  give 
himself  the  gratification  of  a  good  evening  "breakfast"  dur- 
ing Ramadan.  It  is  a  good  custom  among  the  rich  to  have  a 
guest  at  this  meal,  and  one  is  often  taken  in  off"  the  street. 
Nor  does  the  poor  beggar  at  this  time  go  empty  away. 


RAMADAN.  175 

Thus  strengthened  it  is  possible  for  the  Moslim  in  his 
nocturnal  devotions  to  perform  the  twenty  systems  of 
reverential  bendings  (ruh'a)  novs^  demanded  instead  of  the 
usual  three.  On  tlie  streets  there  is  not  to  be  sure  a  surging 
of  people  up  and  down,  and  there  are  also  but  a  few  of  the 
dealers  or  artisans'  shops  opened,  but  a  bustle  and  traffic  at 
other  times  unusual  on  the  street  at  night  may  still  be  noticed; 
numerous  sellers  of  fruits,  and  especially  of  confectionery, 
have  lighted  up  their  stations,  and,  till  far  into  the  night, 
cry  their  wares,  now  so  largely  patronised  by  young  and 
old;  the  cafes  are  all  well  attended,  and  if  one  pleases  he  can 
now  get  here  besides  the  black  bitter  coffee  sweetened  coffee 
or  a  cup  of  ginger  water  with  sugar,  and  sometimes  also 
sherbet  of  rose-water,  tamarinds,  raisins,  St.  John's  bread, 
or,  lastly,  a  drop  of  liquorice  j nice.  A  ''poet"  relates  to  the 
by-standers  the  deeds  of  the  hero  Abuset  or  Antar,  some- 
times bursting  out  into  song,  and  accompanying  himself  by 
scraping  on  a  one  stringed  fiddle.  In  another  cafe  a  master 
of  music  twangs  with  all  the  rapidity  of  a  virtuoso  the 
innumerable  treble  strings  of  a  kind  of  guitar,  and  draws 
from  it  those  weak  jingling  tones  which  recall  to  us  our  boy- 
hood and  the  time  when  we  received  our  first  music  lessons 
on  the  dingy-keyed  piano  of  a  country  schoolmaster.  There 
the  guests  listen  to  a  story-teller;  with  voluble  tongue  and 
poetic  verse  he  describes  the  enchanted  princes  and  princesses, 
the  excursions  of  the  disguised  Haroun  al  Rashid  and  his 
viziers,  the  man-eating  monsters,  the  Jewish  enchanters,  which 
form  the  material  for  every  one  of  those  tales,  the  number 
of  which  is  far  more  than  1001.  The  narrative  is  extempore 
— purely  from  memory. 

In  the  houses  matters  proceed  in  the  same  way  or  even  with 
more  liveliness.  Everybody  who  has  a  house  to  offer  ''pre- 
pares a  couch''  (ijfrish)  in  order  to  receive  guests,  and  treats 
them  to  coffee.  On  such  evenings  the  merriest  humour  pre- 
vails, and  at  no  time  the  whole  year  through  does  the 
Moslim  appear  in  such  a  hearty  vein  as  on  the  nights  of 
Ramadan.  He  goes  from  one  house  to  another  and  makes 
a  round  of  calls  upon  his  friends  and  acquaintances.     In 


176  UPPER  EGYPT. 

order  to  add  life  to  an  entertainment  gentlemen  often  send 
for  singers,  instrumentalists,  and  dancers,  the  last  of  whom 
are  generally  in  great  request  on  the  evenings  of  this  month. 
The  religious  element  is  represented  by  a  schoolmaster  who 
recites  the  Koran  in  another  room,  and  who  is  expressly 
hired  for  the  month,  or  an  educated  slave  or  a  son  may 
perform  this  office.  Other  feasts,  such  as  circumcisions 
or  marriages,  are  never  celebrated  in  the  sacred  month. 
Sittings  of  the  courts  are  commonly  held  and  the  more 
important  official  business  performed  at  night.  It  is  not  till 
towards  midnight  that  quietness  prevails ;  the  muezzin  calls, 
and  soon  after,  a  cry  is  heard  and  a  warning  shot  sounds  over 
the  town  intimating  that  it  is  time  to  prepare  for  the  last 
meal.  If  any  person  has  failed  to  notice  this  he  is  warned 
by  individuals  who  about  this  time  wander  /singly  through 
the  town  from  house  to  house  beating  a  drum.  The  "  viml- 
meal "  consists  of  the  remains  of  the  principal  meal  warmed 
up,  or  of  meat  fried  with  butter  and  articles  made  of  flour, 
such  as  are  at  other  times  prepared  for  breakfast.  Two  hours 
after  the  boom  of  the  cannon  is  again  heard,  the  fast  has  to 
begin  and  along  with  it  the  same  routine.  Such  is  the 
sacred  month  of  Ramadan,  the  great  month  of  fasting  and 
also  of  feasting,  for  which  the  women  during  the  following 
month  sing  songs  of  regret  as  if  for  a  loved  one  departed. 

THE   GREAT   AND   THE   LITTLE   FEAST. 

In  the  three  following  days  of  the  next  month,  Shaual,  the 
"Little  Feast,"  the  "Little  Bairam"  of  the  Turks,  is  cele- 
brated. It  begins,  as  every  day  does,  in  the  evening.  The 
women  have  made  ready  bread  and  butter  and  sugar-cakes, 
the  men  dress  themselves  in  their  best,  and  the  barbers 
are  occupied  till  late  at  night  in  attending  to  their  cus- 
tomers. On  this  evening  three  cannon  shots  proclaim  that 
the  fast  has  now  come  to  an  end.  After  supper  every- 
body goes  early  to  bed,  but  before  sunrise  all  the  men  are  in 
the  mosque  offering  up  their  feast-day  prayers,  and  listening 
to  the  feast-day  sermon,  which  does  not  last  much  longer 


THE  GREAT  AND  THE  LITTLE  FEAST.  177 

than  the  Friday's  ceremony.  This  day's  breakfast,  the  first 
for  a  month,  consists,  if  possible,  of  fresh  or  salted  fish,  with 
all  kinds  of  fruits  and  delicacies,  in  order  that  the  body  may 
be  gradually  accustomed  to  its  usual  course  of  life.  People 
appear  in  their  holiday  clothes,  and  the  shops  are  shut.  On 
this  day  shirts  covered  with  a  year's  dirt  are  exchanged 
for  brand-new  garments  even  among  the  poorest,  gay  silken 
stuffs  infold  those  parts  and  members  of  the  body  that  were 
previously  exposed,  costly  cloths  flutter  round  the  head,  and 
the  cheerful  colours  of  the  bright  red,  bright  yellow,  green, 
and  blue  coats  show  vividly  in  the  morning  sun.  The  little 
girls,  who  are  allowed  to  run  about  the  streets  and  markets 
only  on  rare  occasions,  on  this  day  flutter  about  like  brilliant 
butterflies  through  the  whole  town,  in  their  fire- red  clothes, 
their  faces  carefully  painted  and  touched  up,  and  their  persons 
hung  with  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver.  A  nameless  joy 
beams  in  and  from  out  the  heart  of  everybody.  No  longer 
is  there  any  enemy,  any  hateful  unbeliever;  high  and  low 
are  all  one,  the  whole  citizens  embrace  each  other — liberty, 
equality,  fraternity.  A  round  of  visits  is  made  from  house 
to  house;  officials  and  people  of  the  higher  ranks  give  a  very 
imposing  reception,  and  everybody  wishes  everybody  else  a 
happy  new  year,  though  the  new  year  will  not  come  for  three 
months  yet.  After  the  visitor  has  embraced  his  host  round 
the  neck,  bending  over  his  right  and  his  left  shoulder,  cofifee, 
and  sherbet  are  brought,  or  the  half-fermented  native  beer 
made  from  barley,  and  called  huza.  Everybody  serving 
another  in  any  capacity  on  this  day  receives  from  his  master 
a  money  present  or  at  least  a  new  garment.  The  women 
also  adorn  themselves  and  hold  receptions  for  each  other,  but 
this  is  done  to  a  greater  extent  on  the  following  day,  as  they 
have  too  much  to  do  on  the  first  day  in  preparing  liquors 
for  the  male  guests.  Any  other  kind  of  work  is  out  of  the 
question.  The  remaining  portion  of  such  holidays  passes 
quietly,  the  chief  times  of  the  day  being  proclaimed  by  the 
reports  of  a  cannon  as  well  as  by  the  muezzin.  As  early, 
however,  as  the  second  day  of  the  feast  some  persons  who 
are  eager  after  business  open  their  shops  and  buy  and  sell ; 

12 


178  UPPER  EGYPT. 

while  those  who  have  lost  some  one  dear  to  them  recall  him 
or  her  to  their  thoughts,  proceed  to  the  cemetery  (especially 
the  women),  stick  a  palm  branch  into  the  grave  mound,  dis- 
tribute pastry  and  alms,  and  even  pass  the  night  there  with 
their  family. 

The  other  feast  follows  three  months  after.  It  is  called  the 
Great  Feast  or  Feast  of  Offering,  and  lasts  for  four  days,  but 
is  really  the  smaller  feast.  The  baking,  cannon-firing,  receiving 
of  visitors,  embracing,  congratulating,  and  dressing  go  on  as 
at  the  little  feast;  the  festive  gaiety  is,  however,  dulled,  and 
is  not  so  universal  as  after  the  Kamadan.  The  chief  ceremony 
on  this  occasion  is  the  eating  of  "offering  flesh"  in  memory 
of  the  offering  of  Abraham.  Every  believer  must  have  his 
piece  of  meat  on  this  day,  and  anyone  who  cannot  procure 
it  for  himself  receives  it  from  his  richer  neighbours,  each  of 
whom  offers  a  sheep  for  every  member  of  his  family.  The 
native  Christians  abstain  from  flesh  on  this  day  out  of 
opposition.  This  is  the  most  brilliant  period  of  the  pil- 
grimage in  Mecca. 

FEAST  OF  THE  SAINTS. 

In  the  middle  of  the  month  Shaaban,  which  precedes 
Ramadan,  is  celebrated  the  great  annual  jubilee  (a  kind  of 
wakes),  when  every  town  that  can  claim  to  have  had  a  saint 
of  any  note,  having  chosen  him  as  its  patron,  honours  his 
memory  by  some  kind  of  festive  demonstration — the  saint 
having  been  a  man  gifted  by  God  with  miraculous  power, 
not  necessarily  on  account  of  great  piety,  but  oftener  as  a 
compensation  for  harmless  and  innocent  imbecility.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  also  had  their  patrons  and  protectors, 
namely,  special  divinities  or  forms  and  varieties  of  such  for 
particular  cities.  In  Upper  Egypt  the  chief  festival  is  that 
of  the  Sheikh  Abder-Kahim  at  Keneh;  it  is  for  Upper  Egypt 
what  the  celebrated  fair  at  Tantah  is  for  Lower  Egypt.  The 
latter  is  evidently  a  continuation  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  feast 
of  Diana  at  Bubastis,  or  is  analogous  to  it.  From  the  beginning 
of  the  month  onwards  some  bustle  prevails  round  the  temple 


FEAST  OF  THE   SAINTS.  179 

or  mausoleum  of  the  sheikh,  as  the  saint  is  called,  booths  and 
tents  are  erected,  and  the  spot  where  he  is  buried  is  crowded 
with  devout  visitors.  At  night  the  halls  of  the  mausoleum 
are  lighted  up,  all  the  lamps  above  the  tomb  being  lighted; 
the  citizens  crowd  to  the  spot,  listen  to  the  reading  of  the 
Koran,  and  give  themselves  up  to  the  intoxication  of  the 
zikVy  a  kind  of  religious  dance  which  will  be  described  after- 
wards. Coffee  and  sherbet  are  served  out  in  the  booths,  and 
dancing-girls,  singers,  and  instrumental  performers  attract 
the  people,  the  stalls  of  the  dealers  in  fruits  and  confectionery- 
extend  far  into  the  city;  all  the  shopkeepers  have  provided 
large  supplies  of  goods;  foreign  traders  expose  their  commodi- 
ties; the  festival  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  fair.  The 
nearer  the  feast  the  greater  the  throng  of  people  that  assem- 
bles from  far  and  near.  Every  hour  brings  more  new-comers, 
many  of  whom  advance  in  solemn  procession,  horsemen  and 
flags  in  front,  with  drums,  musical  instruments,  and  women 
behind,  who  express  in  a  melancholy  chant  their  longing 
regards  towards  the  sainted  sheikh,  or  utter  quavers  of  joy. 
The  flags  and  the  sheep  that  are  dragged  along  in  the  pro- 
cession are  intended  as  offerings  for  the  saint,  in  fulfilment 
of  a  vow  made  for  a  prayer  granted  in  the  course  of  the  year. 
When  the  attendants  of  the  sheikh,  as  sacrificial  priests,  have 
taken  as  much  as  they  want,  the  remainder  is  divided  among 
the  struggling  people. 

At  the  place  where  the  festival  is  held  boys  and  youths 
amuse  themselves  on  a  large  swing,  the  smaller  and  the  girls 
enjoy  a  kind  of  see-saw;  on  the  level  unused  area  of  the 
graveyard  the  equestrian  performers  go  through  their  man- 
oeuvres. Clad  in  a  wide  flowing  blouse,  with  the  sleeves  thrown 
far  back,  their  feet  planted  on  the  broad  flat  stirrups,  as  they 
sit  in  their  saddles  that  rise  into  a  high  pommel  before  and 
behind,  holding  upright  in  their  hands  a  long  pole,  these 
performers  ride  at  full  speed,  one  after  the  other,  from  one 
row  of  people  to  the  opposite.  They  display  their  dexterity 
by  suddenly  stopping  their  flying  horses  when  close  beside 
the  frightened  crowd,  in  accomplishing  which  their  pole 
serves  as  a  support,  and  by  raising  the  dust  in  clouds  causes 


180  UPPER  EGYPT. 

their  daring  to  be  visible  to  a  distance.  The  people  on  the 
festival  ground  take  up  their  positions  in  a  number  of  circles, 
in  the  centre  of  which  performers  of  all  sorts  show  them- 
selves. Here  a  silver-haired  wise  woman  or  female  sheikh 
sings  rousing  religious  hymns;  there  the  listening  people  get 
stories  of  genii  and  of  heroes  told  to  them;  here  the  monkey- 
keeper  puts  his  red-buttocked  baboon  through  his  perform- 
ances, making  him  show  "the  maiden's  sleep  and  that  of  the 
old  wife,  the  walk  of  the  thief,"  &c.;  there  a  group  of  impro- 
visators are  bawling  and  clapping  their  hands,  ready  at  a 
moment's  notice  to  make  a  verse  for  and  upon  every  new 
comer.  Elsewhere  a  buffoon  is  giving  amusement  by  his 
gestures  in  theatrical  representations,  and  his  wit,  which  is 
coarse,  generally  obscene,  and  exceedingly  personal.  A  jug- 
gler stuffs  his  mouth  full  of  cotton  and  draws  out  endless 
ribbons  instead.  These  he  winds  up  together,  then  shuts  them 
into  his  magical  box,  opens  the  box,  and  discovers  it  to  be 
empty.  He  then  summons  the  magic  spirit  to  his  assistance  by 
blowing  a  large  shell  (generally  that  of  Tritonium  variega- 
tum),  opening  the  box  again  and  a  large  serpent  crawls  out  of 
it.  In  the  meantime  he  goes  through  all  sorts  of  antics  with  his 
boys  and  assistants.  One  of  these  robs  him,  but  the  thief  is 
discovered  and  condemned  to  death.  The  juggler  bares  the 
culprit's  belly,  into  which  he  forcibly  thrusts  a  dagger,  and 
in  order  that  death  may  be  certain,  he  withdraws  and  inserts 
it  several  times.  A  stream  of  blood  spurts  out,  and  the  per- 
formance is  too  real  and  horrible  for  some  spectators.  The 
corpse  is  covered  up,  the  magic  shell  is  blown,  the  spirit 
awakes  the  boy,  who  gradually  moves  his  limbs,  and  soon 
jumps  about  as  merry  as  before.  The  handle  of  the  dagger, 
as  the  police  have  learned,  is  hollow,  and  the  blade  is  pushed 
up  into  it  when  brought  into  contact  with  the  skin,  while  at- 
the  same  time  a  bladder  applied  to  the  dagger  gives  out  a 
stream  of  blood-red  beet-root  juice. 

On  the  morning  of  the  festival  itself,  as  upon  all  the  great 
general  festivals  of  Islam,  town  and  people  are  decorated  and 
dressed  out,  work  is  entirely  at  a  stand-still,  and  the  throng 
upon  the  main  streets  leading  to  the  tomb  of  the  saint  is 


FEAST  OF  THE  SAINTS.  181 

immense.  The  town  contains  twice  or  thrice  as  many 
strangers  as  inhabitants,  and  these  are  all  on  foot.  Camels 
behung  with  coloured  cloths,  ribbons,  carpets,  and  bells,  carry 
the  mahmel  or  "ark"  of  the  tutelary  saint,  which  is  covered 
with  the  grave-cloth  embroidered  in  gold  and  silver;  the 
main  part  of  this  mahmel,  a  quadrangular  wooden  frame  with 
s.  pyramidal  top,  may  be  seen  at  other  times  on  the  roof  of 
the  sheikh's  building.  The  anniversary  of  other  saints  is 
also  occasionally  celebrated  at  the  same  time,  and  each  has 
his  mahmel.  These  processions  have  an  unmistakable  simi- 
larity to  those  that  took  place  at  the  clothing  of  the  statues 
of  the  ancient  Egyptian  deities.  When  the  camels  are  col- 
lected the  procession  starts.  The  advanced  guard  is  formed 
by  a  large  number  of  swift  camels,  whose  riders,  sitting  upon 
rich  housings,  and  themselves  decked  with  gay  garments, 
gallop  backwards  and  forwards  and  display  their  dexterity. 
Others  show  their  horses'  action,  while  boys  strive  to  get 
their  donkeys  to  gallop.  Pipers  and  kettle- drummers  head 
the  procession  itself  (it  is  only  the  military  that  have  drums 
and  trumpets  proper),  then  comes  the  chorus  of  day  and  night 
watchmen,  followed  by  the  Turkish  soldiers  and  police-officials 
in  full  regimentals.  This  armed  body  keeps  up  a  perpetual 
•fire,  loading  their  old-fashioned  guns  and  pistols  to  the 
muzzle.  In  their  midst  rides  the  governor  of  the  province 
or  his  representative  on  a  richly  caparisoned  steed,  the  pro- 
cession being  joined  also,  when  possible,  by  a  squadron  of 
Bashi  Bazouks  or  irregular  troops,  and  a  company  of  regular 
troops  of  the  line.  The  camels  with  the  mahmels,  each  led 
by  a  man,  form  the  middle  of  the  festal  procession.  Under 
the  frames  of  the  mahmels  peep  out  boys  and  girls  who  have 
been  elevated  to  this  blessed  seat,  either  in  virtue  of  their 
rank,  or  by  the  recommendations  of  their  fathers.  Before 
€very  camel  a  body  of  men  dance  and  sing  pious  odes,  hymns 
and  verses  of  the  Koran;  gay  flags  consecrated  to  the  sheikh 
are  carried  alongside  of  the  camel.  Behind  follow  more 
musicians,  and  after  them  dancing-girls,  who  are  indispens- 
able even  to  such  pious  solemnities,  and  are  believed  not  to 
have  a  disturbing  effect  upon  the  devotion  appropriate  to 


182  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  festival.  Upon  a  wheeled  conveyance,  and  adorned  with 
flags  and  ribbons,  a  small  boat  is  pulled  along,  the  property 
of  the  saint,  and  at  other  times  hung  up  in  his  mausoleum. 
In  it  he  is  said  to  have  from  time  to  time  made  journeys  by 
sea  and  river.  The  end  of  the  procession  is  formed  by  camels 
bearing  huge  kettle-drums,  which  the  rider  belabours  with  a 
mighty  drum-stick.  Behind  these,  lastly,  comes  the  crowd 
of  people  extending  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  Thus  they 
march  away,  often  to  some  spot  leagues  distant  in  the  desert, 
and  after  making  the  round  of  the  town  appear  before  the 
serail  of  the  governor.  This  solemn  moment,  which  does  not 
take  place  till  towards  evening,  is  proclaimed  by  the  thunder 
of  ordnance.  At  some  places  the  firing  takes  place  at  the 
start  of  the  procession.  With  the  replacing  of  the  arks  in 
the  temple  of  their  sainted  owners  the  festivities  come  to  an 
end,  and  next  morning  all  the  people  are  again  in  their 
working  clothes. 

EASTER  WEEK. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  bigoted  Mohammedans  celebrate, 
at  least  in  Egypt,  some  days  in  common  with  the  native 
Christians^  though  certainly  in  a  peculiar  and  by  no  means 
Christian  manner.  To  these  belong  especially  the  dsijs  about 
Easter.  On  Palm  Sunday  (had  el  chus)  the  women  bind  palm 
twigs  round  their  heads  and  fingers.  On  the  Monday  fol- 
lowing people  eat  fagus  (a  kind  of  cucumber)  along  with 
caraway;  on  Tuesday,  whey  with  onions,  this  day  being  ac- 
cordingly called  "  whey  and  onion  day "  (^yum  el  mish  u  el 
basal).  The  Wednesday  is  universally  known  by  the  name 
of  Job's  Wednesday  (arha  Ayuh).  On  this  day  the  plant 
ghuhera  (Inula  arahica?)  said  to  Job  in  his  illness,  "Wash 
thyself  with  my  juice,  and  thou  wilt  recover;"  he  did  recover, 
and  on  this  day  it  is  customary  for  all  the  Egyptians  to  wash 
themselves  with  the  ghargharah  Ayuh.  Maunday  Thursday 
has  become  "  pea-Thursday."  Good  Friday  is  called  among 
the  Mohammedans,  "cake  and  butter  Friday"  (guma'a  el 
mafruJca),  cakes  spread  with  butter  and  honey  being  the 


EASTEE   WEEK.  183 

special  dainty  on  this  day.    Saturday  is  named  "the  Sabbath 
of  the  light/'  from  the  celebrated  sacred  fire,  which  on  this 
day  bursts  forth  in  the  Greek  Church  of  the  Sepulchre  at 
Jerusalem,  and  on  this  account  the  Christian  brethren  there 
annually  get  up  a  spectacle,  which  often  terminates  in  deadly 
blows  and  renders  the  intervention  of  the  Turkish,  and  con- 
sequently Mohammedan  soldiery  necessary.     On  this  day 
the  Mohammedan  faithful  strengthen  their  eyes  with  eye- 
powders;  everybody  has  a  vein  opened,  or  gets  himself  cupped, 
a  custom  which  prevails  in  many  places  in  the  West  also,  and 
in  Egypt,  Mohammedan  as  it  is,  coloured  Easter  eggs  are 
also  eaten.     People  take  hishh,  that  is,  a  decoction  of  wheat 
with  sourmilk,   boil  it   with   eggs,   and  stick  it  with   the 
coloured  shells  of  the  eggs  above  the  doors  to  adorn  the 
entrance  for  all  time  coming  and  ward  off  spirits.    On  Easter 
Sunday  the  "great  feast  of  the  Christians"  (^id  en-nusdra) 
these  hold  a  grand  reception,  with  sherbet  and  holiday  gifts, 
the  Mohammedans  in  a  friendly  and  neighbourly  way  call 
upon  the  Christians  as  the  latter  did  upon  them  during 
Bairam.     The  Easter  Monday  of  the  Copts,  whose  festivals 
are  settled  by  the  Greek  calendar,  is  the  universal  spring 
festival  for  the  adherents  of  both  religions.    The  night  before 
onions,  beans,  and  a  bouquet  of  roses  are  laid  under  the  bed- 
cushions  and  slept  upon.     On  Easter  Monday  the  onions  are 
crushed  and  stuck  with  some  water  on  the  door;  the  beans 
are  stuck  on  the  bar,  and  the  roses  are  used  as  a  nosegay. 
At  the  first  streak  of  daylight  everybody  moves  abroad,  this 
being  the  day  of  shimm  en-nezim,  that  is,  "air-smelling,"  or 
more  poetically  "sipping  the  zephyr."     People  go  to  the 
gardens  or  other  attractive  spots,  and  pass,  if  possible,  the 
whole  day  there.     At  the  most-frequented  places  sellers  of 
coffee,  sherbet,  buza,    and   cooked   meats    establish    them- 
selves.    A  company  of  friends  may  take  an  Easter  lamb  with 
them,  kill  it  at  the  rendezvous  they  have  selected,  and  pre- 
pare tanuT,  that  is,  they  cut  up  the  meat  in  several  pieces 
and  bake  it  in  an  improvised  earth-oven;  or  they  make 
shauirma,  that  is,  the  whole  lamb  with  the  skin  and  hair  on 
is  placed  on  a  spit  and  roasted  at  the  fire.'    The  day  is  spent 


184  UPPER  EGYPT. 

in  conversation,  ball  playing,  and  gymnastic  exercises,  and 
those  whose  conscience  allows  it  smell  the  contents  of  their 
dram-bottle  as  well  as  the  fresh  air  and  roast  meat.  Health 
must  be  inhaled  to-day  since  the  five  days'  period  of  terror, 
the  time  of  the  chamasin,  is  now  at  hand.  A  serpent  then 
wanders  over  the  earth  and  infects  the  atmosphere  with  its 
poisonous  breath,  leaving  behind  small-pox,  plague,  cholera 
("the  yellow  wind"),  and  all  other  varieties  of  disease.  The 
curse  is  not  removed  till  Whitsuntide  dissolves  it. 

THE  NIGHT  OF  THE  DROP. 

On  the  I7th  of  June  a  "drop"  falls  (according  to  the 
ancients  a  tear  of  Isis)  into  the  decreasing  waters  of  the  Nile, 
and  impregnates  the  wonderful  stream.  Its  effect  is  soon 
after  observed  in  the  dirtier  colour  of  the  water,  then  in  its 
more  rapid  flow,  and  lastly  in  its  increase  and  overflow.  On 
this  day,  or  on  the  night,  the  "night  of  the  drop,"  young  and 
old  flock  to  the  banks  of  the  blessed  stream. 

THE  NERUS  DAY. 

On  the  10th  September,  the  first  day  of  the  Coptic  solar 
year,  the  river  has  reached  to  about  its  highest  point,  and  on 
this  day — the  nerils,  the  people  give  themselves  up  to  the 
pleasures  of  the  carnival.  For  three  days  it  is  all  up  with 
the  rule  of  the  Turks;  every  little  town  chooses  for  itself  in 
its  own  way,  and  from  its  own  midst,  a  ruler  (ahu  nevus), 
who  has  a  towering  fool's  cap  set  upon  his  head,  and  a  long 
spectral  beard  of  flax  fastened  to  his  chin,  and  is  clothed  in 
a  peculiar  garment.  With  a  long  sceptre  in  his  hand,  and 
followed  by  a  crowd  of  correspondingly -dressed  bailiffs, 
hangmen,  and  scribes,  he  promenades  the  streets  and  turns 
his  steps  straight  to  the  hall  of  the  chief  magistrate.  Every 
one  bends  before  him,  the  guards  at  the  door  make  way,  the 
governor  of  the  province  or  of  the  town  has  the  humour  to 
let  himself  be  ousted,  while  the  new  dignitary  seats  himself 
on  his  throne  and  holds  a  most  rigorous  criminal  investiga- 


BIRTH-DAY  CEREMONIES.  185 

tion,  from  which  even  the  displaced  functionar}'-  and  his 
abettors  do  not  escape.  The  hangman's  assistant  of  yesterday 
is  sentenced  to  be  hanged,  the  bastinadoer  to  be  beaten,  the 
bashkatib  or  chief  secretary  to  imprisonment,  immense  taxes 
are  imposed,  and  all  decisions  are  set  down  on  a  sheet  of 
paper.  There  is  no  pardon  for  the  condemned  unless  on  the 
payment  of  a  few  piasters  as  backshish.  Thus  they  move 
from  house  to  house,  the  taxes  being  levied  in  the  form  of 
backshish.  Three  days  does  the  capricious  rule  of  the 
ephemeral  tyrant  last;  at  length  he,  that  is  his  dress,  is  con- 
demned to  death  by  burning,  and  from  the  ashes  creeps  out 
the  slavish  Fellah.  In  the  times  of  good-natured  Moham- 
med Ali  the  abu  nerus  is  said  to  have  ventured  even  to  ap- 
proach his  throne,  but  the  harmless  jest  has  now  fallen  a  good 
deal  out  of  practice.  The  ancients  also  celebrated  feasts  when 
the  Nile  was  at  its  height,  in  the  month  of  Tut,  as,  for  in- 
stance, that  of  Hermes  on  the  19th  of  this  month.  The 
anniversary  of  the  opening  of  the  canal  is  kept  only  at  Cairo. 

BIRTH-DAY  CEREMONIES. 

The  monotony  of  the  work-day  life  of  the  Mohammedan, 
interrupted  by  no  Sunday,  is  richly  and  agreeably  varied  by 
domestic  ceremonies  and  observances.  However  thrifty  or 
niggardly  he  usually  is,  on  such  occasions  he  spares  no 
expense. 

When  the  time  comes  that  a  child  is  to  see  the  light  the 
midwife  makes  her  appearance  with  her  seat,  and  displays 
the  greatest  activity  on  behalf  of  her  suffering  charge;  female 
relatives  and  neighbours  also  come  in  crowds  to  encourage 
and  advise.  It  is  often  sought  to  lighten  the  difficult  task  by 
hanging  opium  about  the  mother,  or  making  her  eat  the  drug- 
The  newly-born  child  is  merely  dried,  not  washed,  and  imme- 
diately laid  upon  a  corn  sieve;  beside  its  head  lies  the  knife 
with  which  the  umbilical  cord  has  been  cut,  and  corn  is 
scattered  round  about.  This  procedure  is  intended  to  drive 
away  the  karina,  that  is,  the  child's  evil  brother  or  sister  from 
the  spirit  realm  that  always  makes  its  appearance  and  tor- 


186  UPPER  EGYPT. 

ments  the  poor  child  of  humanity  till  it  sickens  and  falls 
into  convulsions,  which  are  therefore  also  called  karina  (see 
chap.  vii.).  Immediately  after  the  birth  the  mother  receives 
melted  butter  with  honey  and  fenugreek,  and  instead  of 
fasting  she  must  daily  eat  at  least  a  fowl  or  a  good  piece  of 
meat,  which  her  female  friends  and  neighbours  give  her.  On 
the  sixth  day  the  mother  in  her  turn  sends  these  a  plate  of 
hishh  (decoction  of  wheat  and  sour  milk)  as  a  sign  that  they 
are  invited  for  the  following  day.  Above  the  head  of  the 
sleeping  child  is  placed  on  this  night  a  pitcher,  hung  with 
gold  coins  and  lighted  with  tapers,  the  pitcher  being  long- 
necked  {dor ah)  in  the  case  of  boys,  short-necked  (Jculleh)  in 
that  of  girls. 

On  the  morning  of  the  seventh  day  (yum  es-suhil'a)  the 
house  is  filled  with  female  visitors.  The  child  is  placed  upon 
a  sieve,  tapers  are  fixed  upon  metal  plates  and  on  the  point 
of  a  sword,  and  the  child  is  carried  in  procession  through  the 
whole  house,  while  the  midwife  scatters  hissle,  that  is,  wheat, 
barley,  pease,  and  salt  as  provender  for  the  wicked  spirits. 
The  child  is  shaken  in  the  sieve,  being  thereby  believed  to 
lose  fear  for  the  rest  of  its  life,  and  its  eyes  are  held  up  to 
the  sun  to  sharpen  them.  The  cymbals  and  small  drums, 
the  singing  and  trilling  of  the  women,  make  the  outer  world 
acquainted  with  the  joy  within  the  house.  The  guests  present 
the  mother  and  midwife  with  money  and  gold,  for  which 
they  distribute  parched  chick-peas,  St.  John's  bread,  and 
walnuts. 

But  the  father  must  also  keep  the  seventh  day  as  a  festival, 
especially  if  the  child  is  a  boy,  though  in  many  cases  he  does 
not  dare  up  till  this  time  to  look  upon  his  own  child,  since 
he  might  possibly,  and  quite  against  his  will,  do  some  harm 
to  his  tender  offspring  by  a  glance  of  his  eye.  He  invites 
his  friends  to  a  feast,  and  entertains  them  with  Koran  reading, 
zikrs,  and  similar  pious  amusements,  or  sends  for  instrumental 
players,  singers,  and  dancing-girls.  The  son  is  brought  in  a 
sieve  and  shown  to  the  guests,  who  rejoice  with  the  father, 
and  perhaps  also  leave  some  gifts.  A  plate  of  candy-sugar 
is  now  sent  to  the  kadi  or  some  other  theologian;  he  sucks 


CEREMONIES   PRELIMINARY   TO   FAMILY   FESTIVALS.     187 

it,  and  lets  the  sweet  fluid  trickle  from  his  consecrated  month 
into  that  of  the  child,  and  ''gives  him  the  name  out  of  his 
mouth."  This  is  accordingly  a  kind  of  baptism.  It  is  well 
known  that  among  the  Moslim,  as  among  the  native  Chris- 
tians, and  till  lately  among  the  Jews  of  the  West,  only  per- 
sonal (and  not  family)  names  are  used  even  in  public  life.  For 
distinction  the  personal  name  of  one's  father  is  joined  to  one's 
own  name,  as  Mohammed  Soliman,  that  is,  Mohammed,  son  of 
Soliman.  Many  have  of  course  a  surname,  but  it  is  generally 
personal,  as  for  instance,  the  Bald,  the  One-eyed,  the  Falcon, 
and  so  forth,  and  only  in  rare  cases  is  retained  as  a  family 
name.  In  recent  times  the  desire  of  acquiring  a  family  name 
is  showing  itself,  especially  among  government  ofiicials.  This 
custom  has  of  course  the  advantage  that  it  leaves  no  room 
for  pride  of  noble  or  patrician  descent.  Only  the  descendants 
of  the  prophets,  the  sherifs,  of  whom  there  are  millions,  pride 
themselves  on  their  birth,  and  generally  marry  only  among 
themselves.  Still  more  the  Bedouin,  who  is  said  to  be  able 
to  repeat  his  pedigree  in  personal  names  alone  up  to  Abraham 
and  Adam,  like  the  genealogies  in  the  Bible,  and  who  knows 
the  pedigree  of  his  horse  equally  well. 

On  the  fortieth  day  after  childbirth  the  mother  goes  with 
the  child  to  the  bath,  and  gets  forty  dishfuls  of  water  poured 
over  her  head  if  her  offspring  is  a  boy,  and  thirty-nine  if  it  is 
a  girl.  The  child  also  is  now  bathed  for  the  first  time,  and 
mother  and  child  are  now  clean  and  purified. 

CEREMONIES  PRELIMINARY  TO  FAMILY  FESTIVALS. 

The  more  important  family  festivals,  as  a  circumcision  or 
a  marriage,  are  often  preceded  by  a  whole  round  of  prelimi- 
nary ceremonies  that  last  for  weeks,  or  even  months,  and  take 
place  every  evening.  The  master  of  the  house  prides  himself 
in  giving  a  feast  that  will  be  long  spoken  of  Every  evening 
he  gathers  together  his  friends  in  his  hospitable  dwelling,  and 
provides  for  them  amusements  and  entertainments  of  every 
form  and  kind.  At  present  chess,  draughts,  dominoes,  and 
other  games  are  played,  but  not  for  money,  or  at  most  for  a 


188  UPPER  EGYPT. 

trifle,  since  games  of  chance  are  strictly  forbidden  by  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  as  well  as  wine  and  fermented  liquors 
generally.  The  loser  is  often  jeered,  and  has  his  forehead 
stamped  with  his  own  seal  as  a  mark  of  disgrace;  but  if  he 
then  beats  his  opponent  the  latter  has  to  wipe  off  the  mark 
with  his  own  robe,  and  is  marked  by  the  other. 

Next  day  a  grand  Fantasie  is  held  (a  general  name  given 
by  the  Arabs  to  an  entertainment  where  anything  merry  is 
to  be  seen  or  heard)  in  the  form  of  a  dance  with  music  and 
sino^ing.  Such  an  entertainment  has  little  resemblance  to  a 
Frankish  ball,  which  has  accordingly  preserved  its  own 
special  name  of  balo.  In  the  court,  or  the  space  in  front  of  the 
house,  even  though  this  be  the  street,  carpets  and  straw  mats 
are  spread,  benches  are  placed,  and  many-branched  candel- 
abra and  brilliant  paper  lanterns  or  oil-lamps  with  coloured 
water  are  suspended  above  the  scene  of  the  nocturnal  festivi- 
ties. Soon  after  night-prayer  everybody  flocks  to  the  spot, 
high  and  low,  young  and  old,  invited  and  uninvited.  A  number 
of  dancing-girls  step  up.  They  take  off  their  street  mantles 
and  display  themselves  in  their  richest  attire,  from  the  gold- 
embroidered  skull-cap,  and  gold  trinkets  round  the  neck  and 
over  the  heart,  to  the  silken  bows  upon  the  polished  boots ; 
but  on  such  a  public  occasion  there  is  no  impropriety.  The 
dancing-girls  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  appear  to  have  worn 
a  very  transparent  dress;  they  also  are  often  represented  as 
quite  naked;  even  the  short  skirts  of  the  modern  ballet-girl 
are  seen  in  some  representations.  The  hair  of  our  dancing- 
girls  smoothed,  oiled,  and  plaited,  their  dotted  faces,  their 
rich  and  gaudy  dresses — all  is  faultless.  The  childish  forms 
seem  to  have  become  filled  out,  the  haggard  faces  under  the 
mystic  half  light  of  the  illumined  darkness  and  the  effects  of 
the  "Joseph's  beauty"  (rouge)  have  recovered  their  youthful 
freshness;  the  really  pretty  have  become  charming.  The 
orchestra  has  already  taken  up  its  position  on  the  ground; 
some  gray-bearded  fathers  are  strumming  on  the  two  strings 
of  their  spindle-shaped  fiddles;  a  jolly  musician  blows  the 
reed-clarionet;  matrons  with  buckram  voices  sing  to  plaintive 
tunes,  beat  hand  kettle-drums  and  swing  cymbals  or  tarn- 


CEREMONIES   PEELIMINARY   TO   FAMILY   FESTIVALS.       18D 


bourines  with  jingling  metal  plates  attached.  Or  a  genuine 
young  singing-girl  (an  almeh)  has  been  sent  for,  often  also  a 
singing-boy.  With  elevated  necks  they  rise  up  to  the  highest 
regions  of  the  tenor,  always  despising,  however,  the  feminine 
region  of  the  falsetto  voice;  anon  they  let  their  voices  sink 
deeper  and  deeper  with  the  most  delicate  swells  and  modula- 
tions, but  seldom  venture  down  into  the  bass  voice.  All 
sing  together  in  the  same  key;  harmony  is  unknown,  mono- 
logues and  recitative  choruses  being  generally  sung.  Rapid 
shading  is  strictly  avoided,  and,  accordingly,  the  Arab  derives 
no  pleasure  from  European  music,  regarding  it  as  disagreeable 
and  ridiculous,  or  at  best  remains  indifferent  to  it,  as  some- 
thing foreign.  From  time  to  time  modulations  occur  which 
suspend  the  expected  close.  The  sound  now  dies  away  like 
the  stroke  of  a  bell  trembling  through  the  stormy  air.  A 
sudden  outburst  of  ecstasy  begins  a  new  period,  the  most  de- 
lightful sounds  of  which  are  uttered  through  the  nose.  Allah  ! 
Allah  I  shout  the  people  in  rapturous  enthusiasm,  and  the 
singing-girls,  encouraged  by  the 
applause,  sing  still  more  delight- 
fully, the  kettle-drums  and  other 
instruments  become  louder  and 
stormier. 

At  such  moments  rise  the 
dancing -girls,  the  celebrated 
bayaderes  of  Egypt,  commonly 
called  ghawdzi  (not  almeh,  which 
means  a  singing-girl).  Only  a 
few  of  these  form  an  artistic  con- 
ception of  their  parts,  and  re- 
present in  pantomime  the  com- 
mon history  of  a  love  affair — 
pursuit,  coyness  at  first,  victory, 
and  lastly,  entire  self-abandon- 
ment. Their  much-admired  dances  are,  however,  generally 
quite  inartistic,  having  no  regular  figures,  no  keeping  of  time, 
no  combined  movements.  In  dancing  the  girl  skips  backwards 
and  forwards  before  the  spectators,  raises  the  arms,  clatters 


Dancing-girl. 


190  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  inevitable  castanets  (like  the  crotali  of  the  ancients), 
and  casts  around  coquettish  glances.  Whatever  of  art  is 
displayed  consists  in  movements  of  the  trunk  and  hips — im- 
possible to  imitate — the  limbs  being  almost  at  rest.  Occasion- 
ally the  girl  moves  slowly  round  in  a  circle,  gives  a  slight 
hop,  perhaps  swings  a  sword,  and  sinks  gradually  to  the 
ground  balancing  a  small  cup  on  her  forehead,  or  whirls  her- 
self round  sitting  on  a  narrow-mouthed  pitcher.  Yet  the 
public  are  enthusiastic  to  the  highest  degree  about  those 
female  performers,  a  popularity  which  no  doubt  they  owe 
more  to  their  affability  than  to  their  artistic  skill,  since  they 
joke  with  everybody  and  everybody  with  them  without  any 
embarrassment.  But  dancing  is  given  up  entirely  to  them, 
and  if  any  one  were  to  catch  them  round  the  waist,  ala 
Franka,  and  dance  round  in  a  galop  with  them,  he  would 
bring  abuse  and  disgrace  on  himself,  and  would  be  set  down 
as  crazy.  It  is  a  modern  and  Frankish  custom  for  members 
of  both  sexes  to  dance  together  in  close  contact,  and  such 
a  practice  was  also  unknown  to  classical  antiquity.  The 
Oriental  loves  dancing  and  music,  but  seldom  cultivates  them 
in  person,  getting  people  who  practise  these  arts  as  their 
profession  to  perform  for  his  entertainment;  and  their  pro- 
fession is  never  held  in  esteem,  but  is  regarded  as  degrading, 
like  that  of  an  actor  in  the  Frankish  middle  ages.  For 
a  grown-up  man  of  the  better  class  to  sing  by  himself,  or 
merely  to  join  in  with  others,  or  even  to  amuse  himself  on  a 
musical  instrument,  is  regarded  as  undignified,  and  still  more 
for  ladies.  At  such  fantasies  the  representatives  of  religion, 
the  kadis  and  ulema,  do  not  fail  to  be  present,  and  laugh 
heartily  even  at  obscenities.  The  priests  of  ancient  Egypt, 
as  also  the  severe  Socrates,  saw  no  harm  in  having  music 
and  dancing  in  their  houses;  they  even  practised  music  them- 
selves. The  higher  ranks  did  not  dance  and  sing  themselves, 
but  hired  professional  dancing-girls  and  musical  performers 
as  at  the  present  day.  Among  the  Greeks  music  and  dancing 
were  in  high  esteem,  and  formed  a  part  of  education — even 
the  gods  themselves  danced. 

The  performance  of  the  chauel  or  male  dancer  is  not  much 


I 


EELIGIOUS   ENTERTAINMENTS.  191 

of  an  improvement  on  that  of  the  female  dancer.  Clothed 
and  tricked  out  like  a  dancing-girl,  he  goes  through  the  same 
kind  of  motions  on  another  evening  to  the  delight  of  the 
spectators.  Sometimes  he  also  plays  on  some  instrument, 
and  sings  as  well;  he  blows  his  bagpipes  full  of  wind,  and 
while  it  escapes  melodiously  from  the  holes  of  the  tubes 
under  the  play  of  his  fingers  he  strikes  up  his  ear-piercing 
song,  which  is  followed  by  the  hip-dance — a  threefold  artistic 
effect  produced  all  at  once.  This  class  of  hermaphrodites, 
the  product  of  the  luxurious  East,  also  resemble  the  dancing- 
girls  in  their  abandoned  morals. 

RELIGIOUS   ENTERTAINMENTS. 

In  this  round  of  festivities  entertainments  of  a  religious 
kind  must  not  be  absent,  and  they  are  commonly,  on  these 
and  other  occasions,  the  only  ones  that  are  held.  They  are 
not  called  fantasies;  it  is  considered  very  far  wrong  in  an}^ 
one  to  call  them  so.  The  chatmeh  or  public  reading  of  the 
whole  Koran  at  one  spell  begins  at  vespers.  From  that  until 
night,  and  from  night-prayers  to  next  morning,  the  whole  of 
the  Koran  is  gabbled  over  by  school-masters,  corpse- washers, 
and  other  similar  functionaries  who  can  read.  The  readers 
of  the  Koran  speak  and  sing  in  the  paternoster  style,  in  a 
tone  as  if  cajoling  themselves  and  God,  and  breathlessly 
hurrying  to  the  end;  the  words,  nevertheless,  have  an  impos- 
ing effect  through  the  emphatic  and  melodious  expression  in 
which  they  are  clothed,  and  the  greater  the  more  mystical 
they  are.  The  guests,  illumined  by  the  blessing  arising  from 
the  sound  of  the  divine  words,  converse  about  all  kinds  of 
worldly  matters.  Indeed  they  do  not  generally  understand 
the  meaning  of  the  words  any  more  than  the  readers,  and 
perhaps  often  the  author  himself  They  do  not  wish  to 
understand,  since  the  truth  of  the  Koran  is  raised  above  all 
doubts,  and  to  reflect  on  its  meaning,  and  especially  to  criti- 
cise it,  like  the  feilosufi,  were  worthy  of  hell  fire.  The  Koran 
contains  mingled  together  dreamy  unintelligible  passages, 
platitudes,  repetitions,  contradictions,  unexpected  digressions. 


192  UPPER   EGYPT. 

curses  and  threatenings  against  unbelievers,  but  often  also 
deeply  moral  ideas  and  regulations,  and  wonderful  poetry. 
The  statutes  of  the  Koran,  the  religion  of  Islam,  are  apt  to 
lead  adherents  of  the  faith  to  hypocrisy  and  fanaticism,  and 
interpose  the  barrier  of  fatalism  and  superstition  to  effort 
and  progress  (this,  however,  is  contested  by  enlightened 
Mohammedans);  but  this  religion,  more,  perhaps,  than  any 
other,  has  acted  as  a  bond  of  union,  has  formed  and  united 
nations  together,  an,d  has  been  able  to  preserve  the  old  patri- 
archal virtues  up  to  the  present  day,  of  which  respect  for  old 
age,  hospitality,  and  to  some  extent  also  female  virtue,  are 
tlie  most  to  be  commended. 

Another  religious  reading  is  the  mulid,  that  is,  the  gene- 
alogy of  the  Prophet,  in  which  the  forefathers  of  the  latter, 
from  Adam  onwards,  are  enumerated  and  their  praises 
sunof. 

Among  the  favourite  devotional  observances  are  those  well- 
known  religious  gymnastical  exercises  called  zikr.  Those 
taking  part  in  them  form  a  circle  or  a  line.  At  one  end  the 
leader  (munshed)  of  the  singing  seats  himself,  and  sings  an 
ode,  which  at  one  time  is  deeply  poetical  and  religious,  at 
another,  through  images  and  similes,  like  the  Song  of  Solomon, 
becomes  lascivious  and  indeed  obscene.  The  people  sit  with 
their  legs  crossed,  and  keep  time  to  the  melody  of  the  singer 
with  an  uninterrupted  ''Allah,"  at  first  slow,  solemn,  in  a 
deep  bass,  turning  the  head  alternately  right  and  left.  Gra- 
dually the  time  and  the  movement  of  the  head  become 
quicker,  the  upper  part  of  the  body  takes  part  in  the  move- 
ments of  the  head,  the  "Allah"  becomes  an  "A  A  Allah." 
They  then  assume  a  kneeling  posture  and  move  the  body 
madly  about,  still  keeping  time,  however,  and  each  like 
his  neighbour.  In  the  third  stage  the  company  of  pious 
gymnasts  rise  to  their  feet,  and  their  movements  become 
more  and  more  frantic.  They  pant,  they  moan,  they  groan, 
their  voices  sound  hoarser,  they  stutter,  they  yelp  out,  "Ha, 
Ha,  Allah,"  and  thus  for  hours  the  frenzy  continues.  One  or 
other  of  them  is  now  sure  to  drop,  becoming  giddy,  or  being 
attacked  by  spasms  and  convulsions.    This,  however,  attracts 


ENTERTAINMENTS   OF   THE  WOMEN.  193 

little  attention,  since  the  person  possessed  or  ''disguised" 
(melhils)  will  recover  of  himself,  or  if  it  lasts  too  long,  some- 
body shouts  into  his  ear  the  Mohammedan  confession  of  faith. 
As  soon  as  he  can  repeat  it  in  his  turn  the  evil  spirit  leaves 
him,  and  he  is  again  an  ordinary  man  as  before. 

ENTERTAINMENTS   OF  THE  WOMEN. 

While  during  the  weeks  before  a  circumcision  or  a  mar- 
riage the  men  are  thus  spending  the  nights  in  pleasures  and 
amusements,  the  women  also  get  up  fantasieh  in  their  own 
manner  among  themselves.  They  meet  together  every  day 
(seldom  by  night)  in  the  house  where  the  entertainments  are 
given,  where  they  sing,  beat  the  darabuka  or  hand-drum  and 
the  tambourine,  and  dance  too,  it  may  be,  like  the  professional 
dancing-girls,  rattling  their  castanets.  This  for  the  most 
part,  however,  is  only  done  by  women  of  the  lower  ranks, 
those  of  the  higher  listen  and  look  on.  Men  must  not  be 
spectators,  not  even  the  master  of  the  house.  The  profes- 
sional singers  (almeJi),  more  virtuous  than  the  dancing-girls, 
generally  exhibit  their  powers  only  in  the  harem,  and  the 
men  listen  to  their  charming  songs  through  the  latticed 
windows  of  the  women's  apartments. 

On  the  occasion  of  festivities  among  people  of  lower  rank, 
especially  country  people,  a  man,  on  the  other  hand,  may 
witness  a  public  dance  of  women,  veils,  however,  being  worn. 
The  scene  is  the  court-yard  or  other  open  space.  Late  at 
night,  after  the  evening  prayer,  the  male  spectators  who  choose 
to  come  seat  themselves  in  a  circle  or  semicircle,  a  fire  being 
kept  burning  near  by  in  order  to  heat  coffee,  to  furnish  lights 
for  pipes,  and  occasionally  to  dry  the  kettle-drums  rendered 
damp  by  the  night-dew.  On  one  side  of  the  circle  stand, 
thronging  closely  together,  the  ballad  singers  or  improvvisa- 
tori,  who  at  the  command  of  a  leader  repeat  for  hours  on  end 
a  verse  manufactured  by  himself,  always  in  the  same  melody, 
for  instance: — 

"She  (the  loved  one)  has  made  me  a  cap 

Handsome  as  the  castle  of  Mohammed  All." 

13 


194  UPPER  EGYPT. 

They  also  clap  their  hands,  beat  the  kettle-drums,  make 
gestures  and  movements  of  all  kinds,  wag  their  heads  about, 
jump,  stoop  down,  but  do  not  move  from  the  spot.  At  the 
same  time  female  forms,  completely  veiled  and  enveloped  in 
an  outer  robe,  enter  the  circle  and  dance,  but  in  their  dancing 
also  there  is  no  violent  galloping  about,  nor  even  hopping, 
but  they  move  with  varying  paces,  run  sideways,  backwards 
and  forwards,  wriggle,  bend,  and  turn  round  slowly.  The 
pantomimic  motions  are  made  with  their  hands,  their  faces 
not  being  available  for  the  purpose.  The  row  of  singers 
appears  especially  to  take  pleasure  in  the  movements  of  the 
dancers,  catching  up  all  their  bendings  and  gestures,  and 
repeating  them.  One  woman  steps  into  the  circle  while 
another  vanishes,  or  several  dance  together  at  the  same  time, 
but  never  in  harmony  with  each  other.  A  spectator  now 
passes  through  the  circle,  hurries  up  to  one  of  the  dancers, 
who  has  particularly  pleased  him,  and  twines  a  handkerchief 
round  her,  in  which  he  has  knotted  several  coins.  The  more 
actively  and  coquettishly  the  veiled  damsel  dances,  the  more 
admirers  she  gains,  and  she  may  leave  the  scene  hung  with 
handkerchiefs.  After  some  time  the  unfolded  and  emptied 
handkerchief  is  unexpectedly  flung  to  its  owner  by  the  lady, 
who  again  appears  on  the  scene,  and  who  has  been  able  to 
find  out,  even  in  the  darkness  of  night,  who  it  was  that 
decorated  her  and  made  her  the  present. 

On  this  occasion  a  dance  which  has  a  half  warlike  char- 
acter is  also  executed  specially  for  the  men.  The  dancer  is 
armed  with  a  sword  or  a  long  cudgel,  which,  hopping  and 
springing,  bending  and  wheeling,  he  swings  as  gracefully  as 
possible,  with  pantomimic  and  gently  threatening  movements 
towards  the  spectators.  Or  perhaps  two  dancers  enter  the 
circle,  and  with  similar  movements  engage  in  mock  combat. 

CIRCUMCISION. 

On  the  evening  before  the  great  day  of  Circumcision,  the 
"night  of  the  henna,"  the  women  assemble.  The  henna 
leaves  are  kneaded  into  a  dough  or  paste,  which  is  set  in 


MAKRIAGE.  195 

pieces  on  a  tray,  a  taper  being  stuck  on  every  piece.  The 
women  move  through  the  house  in  procession  to  an  accom- 
paniment of  singing,  trilling,  and  kettle-drum  playing,  the 
boy  who  is  the  occasion  of  the  festival  behind  the  henna 
tray.  The  mother  and  the  singing-girls  receive  presents,  the 
boy  has  a  piece  of  the  henna-paste  tied  into  the  hollow  of  his 
hand,  the  assembled  women  do  the  same  for  themselves,  and 
all  awake  next  morning  with  brownish-red  palms. 

On  the  day  of  the  circumcision  itself,  the  boy,  who  is  now 
^ve  to  ten  years  old,  is  dressed  in  a  new  and  costly  garment, 
a  Cashmere  shawl,  or  it  may  be  a  woman's  robe  (perhaps  as 
a  sign  that  up  to  this  time  he  has  belonged  to  the  harem),  a 
gold-embroidered  woman's  cap  is  placed  on  his  head,  he  is 
mounted  on  a  horse,  and  rides  in  grand  procession  accompanied 
by  musical  instruments  round  the  town.  In  the  evening 
there  is  great  feasting  in  his  parent's  house.  Next  morning, 
or  on  the  evening  after  the  procession,  the  barber  performs 
the  circumcision  with  a  razor,  an  operation  customary  even 
among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  By  it  the  boy  becomes  clean, 
and  capable  of  performing  religious  exercises,  of  praying  and 
entering  the  mosque ;  this  religious  act  is,  therefore,  in  some 
respects  analogous  to  the  Christian  rite  of  confirmation. 

The  circumcision  of  girls  is  performed  privately,  and  may 
be  guessed  to  have  taken  place  when,  on  a  customary  day, 
girls  in  red  holiday-clothes  swarm  about  on  the  streets. 

.  MARRIAGE. 

As  in  the  case  of  circumcision,  the  preparations  for  a  mar- 
riage, in  the  shape  of  domestic  entertainments  and  ceremonies, 
commence  months  before.  As  soon  as  a  son  exhibits  the  first 
signs  of  puberty  his  parents  think  of  providing  him  with  a 
wife.  In  opposition  to  the  views  of  other  peoples  these  mar- 
riages of  children  are  considered  very  healthy  and  judicious 
throughout  the  East,  even  among  the  Christians.  The  parents 
justly  believe  that  they  thus  provide  for  the  well-being  of 
their  children.  Long  before  puberty,  which  follows  in  their 
twelfth  or  fourteenth  year,  or  still  earlier,  all  the  girls  are  given 


196  UPPER  EGYPT. 

away,  that  is,  are  arranged  to  marry  some  boy  or  other,  and 
as  soon  as  both  arrive -at  puberty  they  are  married.  Men 
marry  as  a  rule  from  their  fifteenth  to  their  eighteenth  year. 
These  early  marriages  appear  to  have  by  no  means  a  degene- 
rating influence  upon  the  race,  but  on  the  contrary  a  benefi- 
cial one,  the  marriages  being,  with  few  exceptions,  fruitful 
and  happy,  and  the  women  being  not  so  liable  to  be  attacked 
with  female  ailments,'such  as  chlorosis,  hysteria,  and  nervous 
weakness.  The  same  principles  are  applied  also  in  the  case 
of  tlie  domestic  animals. 

In  a  learned  treatise  by  a  modern  Arabic  physician  who 
studied  in  Europe  it  is  maintained,  however,  that  for  the  men 
of  his  country  the  age  of  eighteen  to  twenty,  for  the  women 
of  sixteen,  is  the  most  suitable.  The  main  consideration 
relative  to  early  marriages,  the  bread  question,  is  regarded  by 
the  Oriental  only  as  of  secondary  importance,  he  only  thinks 
of  it  when  he  is  hungry.  So  long  as  the  son  is  still  too  young 
the  father  provides  for  the  maintenance  of  him  and  his  family, 
when  he  is  old  enough  he  earns  his  daily  bread  himself,  and 
when  the  father  grows  old  the  son  in  turn  provides  for  him. 

When  their  young  son  wishes  to  have  a  wife  the  father  and 
mother  set  out  in  quest  of  a  bride  for  him ;  by  the  latter  the 
bath  is  often  selected  for  this  purpose,  and  her  sober  reason 
often  brings  more  suitable  pairs  together  than  the  impulses 
of  the  heart.  Both  young  people  have  also  to  acquiesce  in 
the  arrangement,  they  cannot  be  forced,  and  the  marriage  is 
not  valid  until  on  the  "uncovering  and  unveiling"  the  pair 
feel  a  mutual  pleasure ;  but  at  this  age  a  refusal  is  rare,  and 
in  case  of  after  disillusion  the  marriage  may  be  easily  dis- 
solved on  either  side.  The  search  for  a  bride  is  generally 
quite  unnecessary,  as  in  two-thirds  of  the  cases  it  has  been 
previously  settled  that  the  young  fellow  is  to  marry  his  female 
cousin,  and  if  he  has  none,  more  distant  relations  are  applied 
to,  and  lastly  strangers.  If  these  marriages  of  cousins  had 
really  such  a  prejudicial  effect  upon  a  race  as  they  are  usually 
represented  to  have  it  must  have  been  long  ago  noticed  in 
Egypt;  its  inhabitants,  however,  show  no  inferiority  either 
from  a  physical  or  an  intellectual  point  of  view.     The  low 


MARRIAGE.  197 

rank  tliey  hold  in  the  intellectual  world  is  not  a  consequence 
of  want  of  understanding,  but  of  want  of  knowledge;  it  is  a 
consequence  of  their  stagnating  religion,  and  of  the  hostility 
of  former  governments  to  enlightenment.  Besides  being  for- 
bidden between  very  near  relatives,  marriage  is  also  forbidden 
between  such  as  have  been  suckled  at  the  same  breast. 
Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  as  already  mentioned,  mar- 
riages were  permitted  even  between  brothers  and  sisters. 

At  the  preliminary  betrothal  the  marriage  contract  is  made 
between  the  fathers  or  guardians  on  both  sides.  The  father 
agrees  to  pay  to  the  father-in-law  of  his  son  a  certain  sum, 
and  part  of  this  is  paid  at  once,  the  other  part  is  always  tied 
up  and  settled  upon  the  wife  in  case  she  should  happen  to  be 
divorced.  These  payments,  however,  must  not  be  understood  as 
if  the  parents  were  simply  selling  their  daughter;  the  "bride's 
treasure"  is  in  most  cases  spent  on  clothes  and  ornaments  for 
the  bride,  and  the  bridegroom  often  gives  these  directly  in- 
stead of  money.  And  the  bride  who  brings  nothing  to  her 
husband  except  her  person,  lays  up  for  herself  from  this 
bride's  treasure  a  fund  for  cases  of  misfortune.  If  the  wife 
has  any  independent  means  she  does  not  share  it  with  her 
husband — it  remains  her  personal  property.  In  the  East, 
accordingly,  mercenary  marriages — so  incompatible  with 
manly  dignity — are  unknown. 

On  the  evening  of  the  wedding-day  is  held  the  marriage 
banquet,  on  which  great  sums  are  often  expended  by  the 
more  wealthy.  Everybody  in  the  place  is  invited  to  the  house 
of  the  bride's  parents ;  whole  hecatombs  (this  is  often  literally 
correct)  of  sheep  are  slaughtered  and  devoured  with  a  rapidity 
that  has  become  proverbial,  and  with  the  most  voracious 
appetite.  Only  the  very  poorest  confine  themselves  to  invit- 
ing none  but  the  members  of  their  intimate  family  circle. 

In  the  course  of  the  day  the  bride  and  bridegroom  frequently 
take  a  bath,  to  which  they  often  proceed  in  grand  procession. 
In  other  cases  the  bridegroom,  when  evening  has  come,  takes 
off  his  clothes  in  front  of  the  house  before  the  gaping  crowds, 
and  has  his  whole  body  soaped  and  bathed  by  the  barber.  The 
chief  festivity  does  not  take  place,  however,  until  nightfall. 


198  UPPER  EGYPT. 

Under  the  red  glow  of  crackling  pitch  torches,  amid  the  unme- 
lodious  noise  of  copper  hand-drums,  the  joyful  toot  of  a  double 
reed-pipe,  and  the  hymns  chanted  by  the  schoolmasters  and 
other  pillars  of  the  faith,  followed  by  half  the  inhabitants  of 
the  town,  the  bridegroom  walks  from  night  prayer  in  the 
mosque  to  his  own  dwelling.  Here  the  procession  halts.  The 
singers  form  a  ring  and  sing  around  the  hero  of  the  wedding, 
for  whom  the  marriage  torches  form  an  illumination.  A  trans- 
parent vernal  down  is  springing  on  his  full  smooth  cheeks, 
his  stature  gives  hope  that  he  will  grow  for  some  years  still, 
his  voice  as  it  is  heard  now  and  then  sounds  childishly  deli- 
cate, or  struggles  painfully  with  the  voice  of  manhood.  The 
immature  form  of  the  youth  is  clothed  in  a  coat  of  scarlet 
cloth,  for  the  first  time  the  manly  turban  rises  on  his  head, 
and  by  his  side  hangs  the  marriage  sword.  Solemnly,  seriously, 
and  slowly  he  paces  onwards  in  the  midst  of  a  few  of  his 
companions.  The  procession  halts  before  this  or  that  house, 
and  the  chief  personages  and  musicians  are  regaled  with 
sweetened  coffee  and  sherbet,  musket  shots  sound  in  the  still- 
ness of  night,  till  at  last  his  father's  house  is  reached.  Hither 
the  bride  has  already  come  in  another  direction  from  the 
house  of  her  parents,  from  the  crown  of  her  head  to  the  sole 
of  her  foot  enveloped  in  a  Cashmere  shawl,  which,  like  the 
red  coat  of  the  bridegroom,  is  generally  borrowed  for  this  day 
only.  She  is  embraced,  and  almost  carried  by  two  wives, 
and  followed  by  a  crowd  of  women  and  girls  uttering  cries  of 
joy.  The  house  of  feasting  is  lighted  up  outside  with  gay 
lamps  and  lanterns,  and  here  the  people  amuse  themselves  with 
the  dancing-girls,  singers,  and  buffoons,  or,  if  more  seriously 
disposed,  listen  to  the  mysterious  words  of  the  Koran,  or  tire 
themselves  out  in  zikrs,  while  the  bridegroom  mounts  to  the 
chambers  of  the  women,  and  lifts  the  veil  of  her  who  has  been 
chosen  for  him,  and  whom  he  has  never  yet  seen,  unless,  tor- 
mented by  impatience,  he  has  already,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
procession  from  the  mosque,  gone  through  this  momentous 
proceeding  in  the  house  of  the  bride.  There  she  stands  before 
him,  the  little,  tender,  lovely  maiden,  her  eyes  deeply  black- 
ened with  kohl,  her  hands  coloured  red,  her  face  dotted  over 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES.  199 

with  beauty-spots,  her  tender  limbs  can  scarcely  support  all 
her  heavy  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver,  her  armlets,  bracelets, 
anklets,  crown,  hair-chains,  and  other  trinkets.  The  silken 
jacket  falls  smoothly  over  her  breast,  that  scarcely  as  yet 
shows  any  swelling.  The  doll-bride  blushes  in  childish 
modesty,  and,  instead  of  her  husband,  not  seldom  wishes — 
her  playthings.  He,  however,  intimates  to  her,  in  the  name 
of  God,  the  all-merciful,  that  he  has  become  her  husband.  If 
the  bridegroom  has  had  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  his  bride, 
the  women  who  have  been  in  attendance  on  the  pair  utter 
cries  of  pleasure,  and  the  joy  passes  through  the  whole  house, 
and  extends  to  the  people  collected  below.  Ceremonies  very 
similar  were  customary  in  the  middle  ages  also  among  our 
German  forefathers. 

Early  on  the  morning  after  this  "night  of  access"  there  is 
much  congratulation  in  the  house  of  feasting;  the  guests 
receive  coffee,  and  are  sprinkled  with  rose-water,  which  they 
rub  on  their  hair,  their  beards,  faces,  and  hands.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  used  to  anoint  themselves  with  ointments,  but 
this  is  no  longer  practised.  On  this  day  the  bridegroom 
takes  a  walk  in  the  open  air  in  his  red  coat  with  some  of  his 
comrades  and  sings  pious  songs;  for  three  days  or  more  he 
goes  about  without  engaging  in  any  occupation,  and  at  this 
time  displays  an  extraordinarily  serious  mien. 

A  man  that  marries  a  second  time  invites  only  his  nearer 
relatives  and  friends,  or  a  scribe,  to  the  betrothal  feast  in  his 
house.  Thereupon  the  marriage  contract  is  drawn  up,  the 
dowry  paid,  a  prayer  uttered,  and  he  has  now  free  access  to 
his  betrothed. 

FUNERAL  CEREMONIES. 

A  shrill  cry,  as  loud  as  the  female  falsetto  can  produce, 
pierces  the  air,  first  one,  then  another,  then  several,  then 
ever  so  many.  A  soul  has  departed.  The  cry  was  the  wail 
of  sorrow  uttered  by  the  women  concerned,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  signal  which  brings  up  crowds  of  women  to  lament 
along  with  them.     On  the  street,  before  the  house  of  mourn- 


200  UPPER  EGYPT. 

ing,  a  long  row  of  straw  mats  and  carpets  is  laid,  on  which 
sit  many  men  silently  smoking  their  chibooks.  Some  men 
and  boys,  connections  of  the  departed,  run  to  and  fro  on  the 
street  uttering  cries  of  grief  and  covering  their  faces  with 
their  hands.  "Oh,  my  father,"  they  cry  (or  ''mother," 
"brother,"  &c.,  as  the  case  may  be),  "Oh,  my  sorrow,  my 
death;  oh,  despair;  oh,  my  strength;  oh,  camel  of  my  house" 
(camel  as  a  symbol  of  strength  or  support).  Friends  show 
their  sympathy  and  attempt  to  give  consolation,  but  even  men, 
at  other  times  so  undemonstrative,  weep  loudly  and  give 
themselves  up  to  grief  What,  then,  is  to  be  expected  of  the 
women,  with  their  more  easily  excited  feelings?  They  put  on 
the  dirtiest  dark-blue  dresses  they  can  find,  loosen  their  hair, 
and  display  their  breasts,  smear  these  and  their  faces  with 
filth,  pluck  out  their  hair  and  tear  their  own  flesh  in  a  frenzy 
of  grief  All  order  ceases,  the  loud  outcry  is  raised  again  and 
again  by  the  mourn  ing- women  hired  for  the  purpose,  and 
those  who  come  to  give  consolation  and  show  their  sympathy 
go  beyond  the  real  mourners  and  join  the  hundred- voiced 
chorus.  It  was  customary  among  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
and  also  among  the  Jews,  to  indulge  in  these  loud  lamenta- 
tions, to  smear  themselves  with  filth,  and  to  hire  mourning- 
women.  The  Prophet  strictly  forbade  it,  but  the  Egyptian 
women  will  not  let  themselves  be  deprived  of  these  ancestral 
methods  of  expressing  their  grief 

Scarcely  have  the  eyes  of  the  beloved  dead  been  closed 
and  his  head  turned  towards  Meccah,  when  preparations  are 
begun  for  getting  the  corpse  out  of  the  house.  The  ancient 
Egyptians,  on  the  other  hand,  retained  the  body  at  least 
seventy  days  in  the  house  for  the  purpose  of  embalming  it, 
before  it  was  placed  in  the  tomb.  All  the  former  repose  and 
dignity  of  the  Oriental  are  now  gone;  beside  the  dead  body 
are  found  only  loud  despair  and  headlong  haste.  The  doctor 
or  corpse-inspector  is  first  sent  for  before  waiting  for  the  first 
traces  of  the  phenomena  of  death,  and  he  must  give  permis- 
sion for  the  burial  of  the  body  while  it  is  yet  warm.  Other 
messengers  have  already  purchased  the  linen  for  the  shroud, 
while  outside,  the  grave-digger  is  already  preparing  the  last 


FUNERAL   CEREMONIES.  201 

abode.  The  corpse-washer  goes  to  work  with  the  utmost 
care;  he  washes  the  body  up  and  down,  repeatedly  cleaning 
out  all  external  openings,  including  the  nose  and  ears,  and 
stops  them  with  cotton;  cotton  is  placed  even  between  the 
toes  and  fingers  and  under  the  armpits.  After  the  body  is 
dried  with  equal  care  it  is  enveloped  in  the  linen  cloth,  which 
has  meantime  been  sewed  together,  and  in  such  a  way  that 
no  part  of  the  dead  is  now  visible.  It  is  then  laid  on  a  bier 
without  a  coffin  (it  is  only  the  Christians  that  hastily  put  a 
coffin  together),  and  a  green  or  red  pall  is  spread  over  it. 
After  a  benediction  has  been  said  over  it  in  the  mosque,  it  is 
carried  to  the  graveyard. 

Hither  the  dead  are  borne  at  a  rapid  pace,  those  at  least 
that  were  Mohammedans.  With  a  haste  and  hurry  that 
nothing  can  check  the  funeral  procession  rolls  along,  amid 
the  murmur  of  la  ilah  ill  allah,  in  order  to  carry  the  bier 
from  the  city  of  the  living  to  the  city  of  the  dead.  The 
advanced  guard  is  formed  by  some  blind  and  poor  people 
and  petty  scribes,  perhaps  also  some  boys  as  a  kind  of  choris- 
ters, and  some  flag-bearers.  The  bier  is  borne  by  four  men, 
friends  of  the  deceased,  who  are  relieved  by  others  of  his 
friends,  and  thus  the  rapid  march  does  not  meet  with  the 
slightest  interruption.  A  long  procession  of  mourners  and 
sympathizers  follows,  all  in  their  ordinary  working-day 
blouses,  the  relatives  in  the  oldest  and  filthiest  possible. 
Several  portly  well-to-do  gentlemen  pant  behind,  or  have  got 
themselves  mounted  upon  trotting  asses.  By  the  side  or  at 
the  end  of  the  procession  follows  the  wailing  chorus  of  women, 
who  on  this  day  show  remarkably  little  of  their  usual  strict- 
ness in  veiling  themselves. 

Having  reached  its  destination,  the  corpse,  wrapped  only 
in  its  white  shroud,  is  taken  from  the  bier  and  let  down 
without  a  coffin  into  a  perpendicular  excavation.  During 
this  proceeding,  if  the  corpse  is  that  of  a  female  her  former 
street  mantle  is  held  spread  out  over  her  in  order  to  keep 
off  longing  glances — under  such  circumstances  little  to  be 
expected.  It  is  not  the  perpendicular  excavation,  however, 
that  receives  the  dead  body,  which,  being  protected  by  no 


202  UPPER   EGYPT. 

coffin,  would  be  crushed  by  the  clods  of  earth  heaped  over  it. 
This  excavation  serves  only  as  the  entrance  to  a  roomy 
earthen  vault,  hollowed  out  alongside  of  it,  in  which  the 
body  is  placed,  and  is  thus  protected  as  well  as  if  in  a  coffin. 
The  entrance  to  the  lateral  vault  is  then  built  up  with  bricks, 
and  during  this  lengthy  operation  the  people  standing  around 
sing  the  melodious  song  "God  pardon  the  Mohammedan  men 
and  Mohammedan  women,  the  believing  men  and  believing 
women"  (allahu  mughfir  el  moslimin  u  el  moslimat  u  el 
mumenin  u  el  mumenat).  One  of  the  scribes,  an  imam,  a 
schoolmaster,  or  the  corpse- washer,  delivers  himself  of  a  short 
stereotyped  funeral  discourse,  in  which  the  deceased — who  is 
no  doubt  straining  his  ears  to  listen — is  instructed  as  to  what 
he  is  to  answer  at  the  examination  he  will  have  to  undergo 
in  the  coming  night.  Once  more  the  confession  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan faith  is  impressed  upon  him.  For  there  come  to 
test  him  two  angels  of  horrid  aspect,  Nakir  and  Munkir  by 
name,  and  torment  him  soul  and  body  if  he  does  not  stand 
on  the  firm  basis  of  Islam.  Lastly,  those  present  whisper 
the  fatha,  and  amid  loud  invocations  to  the  gracious  and  all- 
merciful  One,  clod  after  clod  is  flung  by  them  into  the  grave. 
The  male  members  of  the  family  who  act  as  mourners  place 
themselves  in  a  row,  receive  the  consolatory  words  and  hand- 
shaking of  the  people  who  have  come  along  with  them,  and 
every  one  hastens  to  the  place  whence  he  has  come. 

In  the  night  we  hear  behind  the  walls  of  the  house  of 
mourning  the  shrieking  of  women,  now  wound  off  in  the 
trochees  of  a  machine  in  action,  anon  in  the  dactyls  of 
the  steam-horse  thundering  along  at  full  speed,  or  breaking 
up  into  the  indefinite  clack  of  a  mill.  Briskly  is  the  kettle- 
drum beaten,  and  high  up,  from  time  to  time,  like  a  rocket, 
rises  a  shriek  from  a  hundred  throats.  The  earth  gives  out 
a  hollow  sound  from  the  stamping  of  the  feet  of  the  filth- 
liesmeared  women.  It  sounds  like  an  ungovernable  outburst 
of  joy  and  revelry;  it  is  the  corpse  dance,  through  which  the 
wife  gives  vent  to  her  stormy  grief 

The  men,  however,  pass  the  ''night  of  loneliness"  with 
their  friends  and  neighbours  before  the  house  or  in  a  neigh- 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES.  203 

bouring  conrfc-yard,  drinking  coffee  and  enveloped  in  clouds 
of  tobacco-smoke.  At  the  entrance  or  exit  of  a  sympathizing 
neighbour,  though  he  has  merely  come  to  sip  a  small  cupful 
of  coffee,  the  mourners  rise  and  are  addressed  with  such  cus- 
tomary phrases  of  consolation  as,  ''Such  is  life;  but  you  are 
still  alive  yourself.''  General  and  individual  conversations 
go  on,  in  which  some  of  the  mourners  take  an  active  part, 
while  others,  bathed  in  tears,  sit  dumb  in  a  corner.  In  an 
adjoining  room  lean  schoolmasters  occupy  themselves  with 
chanting  the  ''book  that  cannot  be  doubted,"  or  murmur  a 
three-thousand-fold  "Allah,"  in  order  to  induce  God  to  pity 
the  poor  soul  of  him  who  has  gone  to  his  rest.  This  mourn- 
ing reception  with  coffee  lasts  for  three  days  if  the  deceased 
was  grown  up,  and  the  near  relatives  and  friends  remain 
together  even  during  the  night  and  take  a  common  meal. 

On  the  following  days  we  hear  in  the  house  of  mourning 
such  a  sorrowful,  slow,  monotonous  song  of  lamentation, 
uttered  in  a  low  tone  by  a  company  of  women,  and  mingled 
with  weeping  and  sobbing,  that  it  thrills  painfully  through 
bone  and  marrow.  Thus  for  years  does  a  mother  or  wife 
bewail  one  whom  she  has  loved  and  lost,  on  certain  days  of 
the  week,  or  on  certain  days  of  the  year  consecrated  to  the 
memory  of  the  dead,  collecting  her  female  friends,  relatives, 
and  neighbours,  and  especially  practised  mourning  women, 
in  order  to  relieve  her  sorrowful  heart,  and  to  have  the  vir- 
tues of  the  deceased  duly  sung;  while  the  men  gather  round 
them  a  company  of  their  friends  and  cause  the  Koran  to  be 
read  in  memory  of  their  lost  ones.  Among  the  ancient 
Egyptians  similar  mourning  hymns  were  sung  during  the 
period  of  seventy  days  that  the  body  was  being  embalmed. 
The  great  festivals  also  do  not  pass  without  visits  being  made 
to  the  graves  of  dear  ones,  as  we  have  seen  above. 

Thus  does  Islam  honour  its  dead. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE    DESEKT. 

I.  — HIDE    THlROUail    THE    DESERT. 
POINT  OF  DEPARTURE. 

We  take  leave  of  what  is  called  the  Nile  valley,  the  long 
evergreen  oasis  bounded  on  both  sides  by  extensive  deserts, 
in  order  to  proceed  eastwards  to  the  desert  tracts  of  the 
Egypto-Arabic  mountain  ranges  on  the  coast.  We  have 
immediately  in  our  eye  that  much-frequented  caravan  route, 
which,  starting  from  some  place  in  the  Thebes  district  of 
Upper  Egypt,  intersects  those  mountains,  following  the  course 
of  their  transverse  valleys  in  an  almost  due  easterly  direction 
without  any  considerable  ascent,  and  terminates  in  Koseir. 
In  order  to  collect  our  energies  for  the  exertions  that  await 
us,  we  enjoy  a  siesta  under  the  overshadowing  roof  of  acacias 
and  sycamores  in  front  of  the  caravanserai  of  the  principal 
departure  station  Bir  Amber;  once  more  we  moisten  our 
palate  with  the  sweet  soft  water  of  the  Nile;  we  make  a  pre- 
liminary repast  on  the  gifts  of  the  valley,  milk,  pigeons,  and 
fruit,  and  listen  to  the  hundredfold  twitter  of  the  birds  perch- 
ing on  the  branches  of  the  trees.  The  caravanserai  is  a 
building  in  the  true  modern  Arabic  style  (see  ch.  i.  p.  96), 
not  without  taste,  crowned  with  cupolas  and  possessing 
colonnades  and  chambers.  Like  the  ordinary  caravanserais, 
called  "  wekalehs,"  it  belongs  to  no  one,  but  was  built  by  the 
celebrated  old  Ibrahim  Pasha  for  the  general  benefit,  espe- 
cially for  the  pilgrims  to  Meccah,  who  frequent  this  route  so 
much.  In  winter  it  is  sometimes  used  to  sleep  in;  but  in 
summer  people  avoid  its  neglected  and  almost  ruinous  cham- 
bers on  account  of  the  serpents  and  lizards  that  take  up  their 
abode  in  them,  and  prefer  to  sleep  in  the  open  air. 


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THE  CAMEL.  205 


THE    CAMEL. 


There  is  a  great  deal  of  stir  and  bustle  in  the  front  court. 
The  famous  ship  of  the  desert,  the  one-humped  camel,  to 
which  we  have  henceforth  to  trust  ourselves  entirel}^,  is  being 
prepared  for  its  voyage  through  the  desert.  This  vessel, 
which  is  as  unpoetical  as  it  is  much  sung  in  verse,  offers  much 
for  observation  aijd  reflection ;  and  we  cannot  refrain  from 
adding  our  observations  on  this  singular  animal  to  the  many- 
delineations  that  travellers  have  given  of  it.  Its  skull  nearly 
always  points  exactly  horizontally  out  into  the  wide  world 
towards  the  distant  goal.  At  the  top  its  small  erect  ape-like 
ears  stand  beside  the  small  cranium.  Its  eyes,  at  the  side  of 
the  skull,  stare  earnestly,  or  even,  as  Brehm  will  have  it, 
stupidly  out  of  their  cavities,  surrounded  by  the  protruding 
edges  of  the  bones  and  overshadowed  by  high  shaggy  eye- 
brows. The  fore-part  of  the  crest  of  the  head  forms  a  long 
nose  like  that  of  a  ram,  the  nostrils  of  which  unite  at  a  sharp 
angle.  A  long,  broad,  bearded  upper  lip  half-divided  in  the 
middle  and  sloping  downwards  in  front  and  at  the  sides,  a 
loosely  pendent  but  extremely  mobile  under  lip,  between 
which  opens  a  slavering  mouth  well  furnished  with  broad 
yellowish  teeth,  complete  the  very  far  from  pleasing  picture 
of  a  camel's  head.  The  long,  arched,  slender,  and  yet  power- 
ful and  very  flexible  neck,  compressed  at  the  sides  and  below, 
and  adorned  above  with  a  woolly  mane,  cannot  be  called  ugly. 
The  fore-feet  appear  almost  too  weak  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  body  when  the  centre  of  gravity  is  brought  forward  as 
the  animal  leans  to  the  front  in  striding  along  under  a  heavy 
load;  but  a  broad,  soft,  elastic  sole,  formed  by  the  partial  union 
of  two  thick  toes,  provides  for  security.  The  abdominal  line 
rises  steadily  towards  the  hinder  part  of  the  animal  from  the 
great  wart  or  lump  on  the  breast;  the  dorsal  line  forms  several 
undulations  in  front,  culminates  in  the  well-known  single 
hump  of  fat,  and  then  descends  to  the  rump,  from  which 
there  hangs  down  a  short  compressed  tail  like  that  of  a  cow, 
rather  sparingly  clothed  with  tufts  of  hair  on  the  sides  and 
at  the  end.     At  the  lower  back  part  of  the  rump  a  longish, 


206  UPPER  EGYPT. 

smooth,  ugly  fold  of  flesli  with  parallel  edges,  the  hip  or 
thigh  flesh,  depends  on  either  side,  gradually  diminishing  in 
size  when  it  reaches  the  lower  part  of  the  leg.  This  latter 
stiff'  member  runs  out  into  a  very  projecting  heel,  which  is 
followed  by  a  rather  short  ankle-bone,  and  then  by  the  soft 
spongy  sole. 

The  skin  of  the  animal  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  wool, 
which  is  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  part  of  the  body 
on  which  it  grows ;  but  as  a  rule  it  is  shorn  smooth,  and 
nearly  always  scarred  and  burned,  for  burning  with  a  red- 
hot  iron  is  the  universal  remedy  with  the  Bedouins  and 
peasants  for  man  and  beast.  The  colour  varies  from  whitish 
and  reddish  gray  to  brown  and  brown-black.  A  well-formed 
hump,  the  singular  ornament  of  the  Camelus  dromedarius, 
is  to  be  seen  only  in  very  young  animals,  and  those  which 
have  been  allowed  to  browse  for  a  considerable  time  and 
have  borne  no  burdens.  The  hard  work  which  the  animal 
is  obliged  to  perform  from  an  early  age,  from  the  time  when 
it  ceases  to  suck,  the  pressure  of  the  burden  which  acts  directly 
on  the  hump  soon  wears  away  the  fat  to  which  the  hump 
owes  its  roundness,  and  there  remains  little  more  than  a 
gristly  and  not  very  high  swelling. 

When  in  heat  the  male  animal — which,  like  other  domestic 
animals,  such  as  the  horse  and  the  ass,  is  in  these  regions 
seldom  castrated — acquires  a  peculiar  coating  of  scales  on 
the  rump,  called  samdh.  It  is  now  uncommonly  strong 
and  unmanageable,  but  still  continues  to  work  and  be  made 
use  of  Better  known  is  the  throat  bladder,  a  blue  and 
red  fleshy  mass  which  the  male  camel  when  under  the  sexual 
impulse  emits  from  his  mouth  from  time  to  time,  by-and-by 
sucking  it  in  again.  This  vesicular  mass  is  an  inflatable 
doubling  of  the  palatal  skin,  or  an  anterior  soft  palate;  its 
physiological  purpose  is  still  uncertain.^  Everything  is  alike 
peculiar  about  the  camel,  and  God  the  Lord  himself,  as  the 
Moslim  says,  on  reviewing  his  works  after  the  creation,  was 

^  The  statement  of  Pliny,  "camelus  retro  mingit,  ergo  retro  coit,"  which  con- 
tinued to  be  repeated  up  to  recent  times,  rests  on  mere  conjecture.  Observa- 
tion proves  the  truth  of  the  first  part  of  it,  the  contrary  of  the  second. 


THE   CAMEL.  1^07 

greatly  surprised  at  this  creature  he  had  made.  But  in  every 
part  of  its  design  and  structure  the  animal  seems  as  if  ex- 
pressly created  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  applied,  as  a 
machine  for  traversing  the  deserts.  We  shall  not  attempt, 
in  opposition  to  its  assailant  Brehm,  to  wash  the  creature 
morally  clean ;  but  we  admire  in  it  contentment,  sedateness, 
strength,  endurance,  steadiness,  and  in  spite  of  occasional 
stubbornness,  great  patience  and  manageableness — a  com- 
bination of  qualities  that  no  other  animal  displays,  cer- 
tainly not  the  ass  or  the  mule,  not  to  speak  of  the  horse  or 
the  ox. 

We  soon  begin  to  have  a  liking  for  this  mongrel  breed 
between  ass  and  ox,  and  pat  in  a  kindly  way  the  body  of 
one  of  these  animals.  But  it  suddenly  turns  its  neck  upon 
us,  utters  a  short,  angry,  bellowing  sound,  and  shows  its  open 
mouth.  It  does  not  care  for  the  attentions  of  man,  like  the 
horse,  and  declines  to  be  troubled  in  any  way  apart  from  its 
toils,  as  it  also,  on  its  part,  when  unprovoked,  does  not  attack 
the  human  race.  We  remark  with  compassion  how  this  animal, 
on  the  whole  so  peaceable,  is  tormented,  and  has  its  blood 
sucked  by  all  kinds  of  small  enemies.  Gnats  and  gadflies 
swarm  about  its  skin,  especially  round  the  eyes,  gadfly  larvse 
burrow  in  its  nose,  its  frontal  sinuses,  and  nasal  fossae,  and  it 
endeavours  to  get  rid  of  these  from  time  to  time  by  snorting 
and  rubbing  its  muzzle  on  the  body  of  a  neighbour.  To  the 
anus  whole  colonies  of  blood-sucking  bloated  ticks  have 
attached  themselves,  which  the  all  too  insufiicient  tail  vainly 
attempts  to  brush  off*. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  paintings 
and  sculptures  (with  the  exception  of  the  Memnon  columns?) 
the  camel  has  never  been  found  represented,  nor  is  it  men- 
tioned by  the  Greek  writers  of  Egypt;  from  which  it  has 
been  concluded  that  this  animal,  now  so  common  in  Egypt 
in  a  domesticated  state,  was  then  unknown  in  the  country. 
But  we  learn  from  the  sacred  writings  that  Abraham  had 
camels  during  his  stay  in  Egypt,  or  received  such  from  the 
king  (Gen.  xii.  16),and  it  is  also  objected  that  other  domestic 
animals,  fowls  for  example,  are  never  found  represented,  and 


208  UPPER  EGYPT. 

pigeons,   which  exist  in  such  numbers,  but  seldom,  while 
geese,  on  the  other  hand,  are  frequently  figured. 

We  amuse  ourselves,  while  resting  in  the  forecourt  of  the 
caravanserai,  with  the  proceedings  of  a  frolicsome  and  very 
long-legged  sucking  camel,  which  is  to  be  allowed  to  travel 
with  us,  but,  of  course,  unloaded.  It  has  not  yet  become 
acquainted  with  the  serious  business  of  life,  it  runs  along  at 
a  flying  trot,  its  fat  hump  swaying  and  waggling  to  and  fro 
at  a  great  rate,  strikes  out  with  its  straddling  hind  legs  in 
youthful  wantonness,  utters  a  youthful  bellow,  and  then 
returns  to  the  four-nippled  udder  of  its  mother.  At  a  dizzy 
height  on  the  naked  hump  of  a  hegin,  that  is,  a  camel  which 
can  jump  well,  a  boy  sits  laughing,  as  if  on  a  divan,  without 
support  or  saddle,  having  only  the  legs  slightly  pressed 
against  the  shoulder  of  the  animal,  and  in  his  hand  a  cord 
which  is  fastened  halterwise  round  the  head  and  muzzle. 
Trotting,  seldom  galloping,  the  dromedary  measures  the 
ground,  gliding  onwards  in  long  flying  strides  so  gently  and 
with  so  little  shock,  that,  as  the  Arabs  say,  at  this  pace  a 
person  might  sip  a  cup  of  coflee  on  its  back.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, the  rider  sits  on  a  riding-saddle,  and  besides  the  halter, 
if  the  animal  is  very  wild,  a  ring  is  often  passed  through  its 
nose  to  ensure  its  obedience  to  the  rein. 

PROVENDER. 

Chopped  straw  is  laid  down  as  food,  whereupon  the  mem- 
bers of  the  herd  hasten  from  all  sides  and  crouch  in  a  regular 
circle  round  the  heaps  of  straw.  But  those  are  far  better 
satisfied  who  get  a  bag  of  nitrogenous  beans  fastened  to  their 
heads,  covering  their  muzzles  up  to  the  eyes.  They  have 
now  no  longer  either  eye  or  ear  for  the  external  world;  they 
are  altogether  wrapped  up  in  their  bag,  the  toothsome  con- 
tents of  which  they  quickly  convey  into  their  mouths  with 
their  soft  prehensile  lips.  The  strong  jaws  worked  to  and 
fro  soon  convert  the  hard  beans  into  a  pulp,  which  is  then 
passed  through  the  wonderful  cells  and  folds  of  the  stomach 
(which  has  only  three  compartments),  and  through  the  long 


LOADING  AND   SADDLING.  209 

intestines  of  this  ruminant.  Straw  and  beans,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  plants  which  are  found  in  the  desert  by 
the  way,  are  year  after  year  the  only  nourishment  of  the 
camel  of  Upper  Egypt.  Only  in  "spring,"  that  is  to  say  in 
January  and  February,  the  camel  is  sent  for  a  few  weeks  to 
pasture  in  the  meadows  of  the  Nile  valley,  to  feed  on  clover 
and  the  herbage  of  the  chick-pea.  For  grass  and  hay  do  not 
exist  in  the  land  of  Egypt.  Eest  and  the  green-fodder  cure 
exercise  a  great  influence,  the  outlines  become  rounded,  the 
hump  again  swells  out,  the  limbs  become  stronger,  and  these 
creatures,  after  such  a  new  birth,  again  become  fit  for  the 
service  of  man.  If  not  allowed  thus  to  recruit  themselves, 
connoisseurs  tell  us  they  soon  break  down,  and  in  pasture- 
time  the  owner  of  a  camel  is  very  unwilling  to  let  out  his 
camel  even  though  a  high  price  is  paid  for  the  hire.  The 
camels  of  the  Bedouins  do  not  get  beans,  and  such  as  are 
brought  into  the  valley  of  the  Nile  have  first  to  accustom 
themselves  to  this  food. 

After  eating  their  fill  the  camels  are  taken  to  drink  at  a 
trough  or  water-course.  They  lower  their  long  necks  to  the 
ground,  the  neck  now  making  a  straight  line  with  the  head, 
the  water  is  sucked  in  with  a  loud  noise,  and  is  seen  rising 
in  large  waves  through  the  sloping  column  formed  by  the 
neck  till  it  reaches  the  stomach,  while  the  water  in  the  vessel 
is  visibly  lowered  with  every  gulp. 

LOADING  AND   SADDLING. 

The  beast  would  now  prefer  to  walk  about  free  and  un- 
laden, or  to  chew  its  cud  in  quietness,  and  it  is  by  no  means 
pleased  when  it  is  driven  in  between  two  bags  or  bales  of 
goods  lying  there  all  duly  packed.  It  makes  its  discontent 
known  by  bellowing  repeatedly,  but  it  obeys  orders  though 
it  could  easily  crush  the  orderer.  What  is  evidently  most 
disagreeable  to  it  is  the  moment  of  kneeling  down;  even 
when  food  lies  before  it  it  does  not  do  this  without  some 
delay.  A  mere  croaking  guttural  sound  is  the  signal  with 
which  a  person,  even  a  young  child,  compels  the  huge  animal 

14 


210  UPPER  EGYPT. 

to  kneel  down  before  him,  and  if  this  does  not  follow  imme- 
diately he  enforces  his  order  by  pulling  down  its  head  with 
the  loose  end  of  the  halter.  The  stubborn  beast,  while  ex- 
pressing its  displeasure  by  bellowing,  looks  once  more  at  the 
path,  places  its  fore-legs  properly,  and  making  up  its  mind  in 
despair,  falls  at  last  on  the  callosities  of  its  knees,  that  is,  of 
its  carpal  or  wrist  joints.  The  hind-legs,  which  are  still 
upright,  are  also  slowly  and  carefully  brought  into  position, 
but  the  hinder  quarters  do  not  drop  suddenly,  the  knee 
proper,  which  is  situated  high  up  and  close  to  the  body,  and 
is  also  furnished  with  a  callosity,  being  simply  much  bent 
and  allowed  to  sink.  Some  slight  movements  of  adjustment 
now  follow;  the  fore-legs  are  pushed  forward,  the  elbows 
bent,  the  fore-arm  (lower  part  of  the  leg)  pushed  inwards, 
the  tarsi  of  the  hinder  limbs  are  drawn  under  the  body.  In 
this  way  the  animal,  which  has  now  become  quieter,  crouches 
on  the  ground,  touching  it,  too,  with  only  a  few  points,  and 
these  protected  with  thick  callosities;  the  centre  of  gravity 
rests  on  the  large  chest  callosity. 

In  loading  the  camel  the  first  thing  is  to  put  on  the  saddle, 
hauiyeh.     This  is  a  wonderful  thing,  not  less  strange  than 
the  camel  itself.     It  consists  of  a  sausage  or 
sack   shaped   pad,  of  coarse  sacking  or  alfa- 
grass  cloth,  stuffed  with  chopped  straw,  and 
bent  into  a  horse-shoe  shape,  the  camel's  hump 
resting  in  the  hollow  between.     It  is  close  be- 
hind; in  front  it  is  held  together  by  a  primi- 
tive, but  ingenious,  compressing  apparatus  of 
Camel's  Saddle,     woodcn  bars.     This  consists  of  two  narrow 
transverse  boards,  meeting  above  at  an  anorle, 
there  being  two  pairs  of  these,  one  behind  the  other,  at  a  short 
distance  apart.    Both  these  angular  pieces  are  supported  and 
kept  in  their  places  by  a  longitudinal  bar  on  each  side  running 
along  the  upper  border  of  the  pads,  and  touching  the  boards. 
Holes  are  pierced  in  the  boards,  and  thin  bars  and  strings 
passed  through  from  the  board  on  one  side  to  that  on  the 
other,  these  cross  pieces  both  serving  to  keep  the  boards 
together,  and  also   preventing  the  longitudinal   bars  from 


LOADING  AND  SADDLING.  211 

slipping  upwards.  The  saddle  is  only  attached  to  the  beast 
by  a  crupper,  otherwise  it  is  free,  not  even  a  girth  being 
considered  necessarj^,  since  the  hump  prevents  it  from 
shifting. 

The  load,  which  is  fastened  over  the  saddle  by  cords,  must 
be  accurately  balanced,  that  is  the  first  condition,  otherwise 
the  beast  will  soon  be  worn  out.  The  shape  of  the  load  is 
second  in  importance,  its  weight  third.  A  strong  camel  can 
carry  about  ten  Arabian  hundredweights  several  days  in 
succession;  the  ordinary  load  is  three  or  four.  While  it  is 
being  loaded  the  camel  repeatedly  looks  round  with  an  angry 
bellow  to  see  what  is  being  done  to  it  behind.  A  person  who 
is  riding  seats  himself  on  the  pad  saddle,  which  he  makes 
more  comfortable,  especially  at  the  place  where  the  wooden 
apparatus  is,  by  spreading  over  it  his  mantle,  a  mattress,  or 
a  carpet,  the  universal  couch  of  the  rainless  East.  These 
serve  him  also  as  a  bed  when  encamping. 

Whoever  does  not  consider  this  sufficient,  either  as  not 
being  sufficiently  comfortable  or  for  other  reasons,  gets  a  pal- 
anquin (shebriyeh)  made,  a  longish,  quadrangular  frame, 
somewhat  like  a  bed,  formed  of  a  few  rough  longitudinal  and 
transverse  bars,  with  sides  and  bottom  formed  of  netting. 
This  is  laid  right  across  the  camel's  back,  and  in  the  middle 
fastened  to  the  saddle,  projecting  freely  on  either  side.  It  is 
capable  of  receiving  a  whole  family,  provided  that  the  weight 
is  the  same  on  both  sides.  It  is  generally  taken  advantage 
of  only  by  women,  for  whom  also  a  kind  of  awning  is  erected 
above  it  by  means  of  some  palm-branches,  a  cloth  being 
stretched  over  these  to  render  the  occupants  invisible,  and 
protect  them  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  There  are  several 
other  kinds  of  sedans,  for  example  the  shukduf,  a  kind  of 
chair,  of  which  a  camel  carries  two,  one  hanging  at  each  side; 
the  tahtrudn,  which  swings  freely  between  two  camels,  one 
behind  the  other;  these  are,  however,  seldom  employed  on 
this  route.  We  get  on  best  when  we  seat  ourselves  merely 
on  the  above-mentioned  carpet-covered  saddle.  The  chief 
necessaries  of  travel,  that  is  to  say,  food  and  cooking  appli- 
ances, we  pack  in  a  basket  or  box,  or  in  a  kind  of  saddle-bags 


212  UPPER  EGYPT. 

(churg)  specially  made  for  travelling  by  camel,  and  consisting 
of  two  large  strongly -woven  bags  tied  in  the  middle, 
hanging  down  on  each  side  of  the  camel,  and  often  richly 
ornamented  with  tassels. 

We  leave  the  camel-driver  with  whom  we  have  concluded 
the  travelling  agreement  to  provide  the  water.  He  hangs  a 
goat-skin  on  a  camel,  and,  when  drinking-water  is  required, 
pours  it  out  of  this  into  a  round  wooden  cup  or  a  tin  dish, 
which  he  presents  to  his  client  seated  high  on  his  camel's  back. 
Such  drinking  vessels,  however,  are  inconvenient,  as  they 
can  only  be  used  when  one  is  standing  still;  \^hen  in  motion 
a  very  narrow  necked  vessel  must  be  employed  to  drink 
from.  The  best  is  the  so-called  semsemiyeh,  a  leather  bottle 
with  a  tube  for  sucking.  At  the  watering-stations  the  bottle 
is  always  refilled. 

If  we  wish  to  travel  with  great  rapidity,  and  are  not  afraid 
of  the  cost,  we  hire  a  hegin,  that  is,  a  running  or  trotting 
camel,  which  carries  a  saddle  similar  to  that  of  a  horse,  with 
a  high  pommel  before  and  behind,  so  that  it  becomes  almost 
impossible  to  fall  off  during  the  smooth  yet  rapid  trot.  In 
this  way  a  five  days'  journey  may  be  accomplished  in  one  or 
at  most  two  days,  presupposing  practice  in  camel-riding,  ac- 
quaintance with  the  route  or  companions,  and  water  and 
fodder  stations.  This  mode  of  travelling  is  here  very  uncom- 
mon, being  used  at  most  among  Bedouins;  riding  on  horse- 
back is  still  more  so,  and  carriages  are  scarcely  used  at  all  in 
travelling. 

MOUNTING. 

We  are  invited  to  mount  the  ship  of  the  desert.  There 
are  several  methods  of  doing  this,  each  of  which  has  its  diffi- 
culties. The  most  plausible  appears  to  be  to  mount  while  the 
animal  is  still  crouching  on  the  ground.  But  we  take  very 
good  care  not  to  attempt  that  alone,  since,  long  before  we 
could  seat  ourselves  properly,  whenever  it  felt  our  weight  in 
mounting,  the  camel  would  rise  suddenly  and  fling  us  back- 
wards and  sideways.     Any  one  who  is  accustomed  to  riding 


MOUNTING.  2J3 

on  a  camel  knows  that  quite  well,  and  is  able  to  seat  himself 
Urmly  at  once.  We  uneducated  folks,  however,  while  mount- 
ing and  gradually  trying  to  settle  ourselves  in  our  seat,  cause 
the  driver  to  tread  upon  the  fore-feet  of  the  still  squatting 
camel  so  as  to  keep  them  from  moving,  or  to  tie  them, 
and  fix  one  hand  upon  the  bar  of  the  compressing  appa- 
ratus that  projects  before  the  saddle,  pressing  the  other  upon 
the  hinder  part  of  the  saddle.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that 
we  can  prepare  ourselves  for  all  the  changes  of  our  centre  of 
gravity  that  we  have  to  undergo.  We  give  the  driver  a 
signal  to  release  the  animal,  and  our  body  is  now  swung  in 
rapid  succession  backwards,  forwards,  and  again  backwards. 
For  the  animal  first  springs  up  with  the  lower  part  of  the 
fore-leg  (it  is  far  more  willing  to  do  this  than  to  kneel),  then 
brings  its  hind-feet,  on  the  stretch,  into  play,  and  rears 
itself  at  last  quite  upright,  while  it  now  raises  the  lowest 
portion  of  its  forelegs  and  stands  upon  the  sole. 

We  now  find  ourselves  high  above  the  ground,  higher  than 
we  have  ever  ridden  before;  we  shudder  when  we  think  upon 
our  helpless  condition.  If  the  animal  were  to  become  refrac- 
tory what  could  we  do?  We  sit  far  too  high  to  be  able  to 
steady  ourselves  with  the  calves  of  the  legs  as  in  riding  on 
horseback.  If  we  sit  astride  upon  the  broad  saddle,  our  soles 
scarcely  touch  the  ribs;  if  we  seat  ourselves,  as  is  the  common 
plan,  with  our  feet  dangling  down  over  the  neck  or  over  the 
side  of  the  animal,  our  position  is  indeed  more  comfortable 
but  is  less  secure  should  the  awkward  case  occur  in  which 
both  saddle  and  rider  are  flung  off  by  the  violent  movements 
of  the  camel.  The  bridle  is  of  no  use,  since  the  cord  brought 
round  its  nose  has  little  influence  on  the  beast  however  hard 
it  is  pulled.  The  Moslim  merely  cries,  ''The  name  of  God  on 
you"  (bisTnallah  *alek),  when  it  turns  restive  or  refractory. 
Such  misbehaviour  on  the  part  of  the  animal  is  fortunately 
rare,  however;  were  it  not  soother  means  of  subduing  it  would 
have  been  discovered  before  now.  During  its  ordinary  run- 
ning pace  we  are  in  the  greatest  security. 

We  find  that  the  angular  projections  of  the  wooden  part  of 
tlie  saddle  on  which  any  part  of  the  body  rests  are  still  in- 


214  UPPER  EGYPT 

sufficiently  padded,  so  that  we  cannot  endure  to  ride  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  and  have  to  request  the  driver  to  let  us 
dismount.  He  warns  us  to  stick  on  firmly  as  in  mounting, 
since  the  backward  and  forward  shakings  are  the  same,  only 
they  occur  in  reverse  order.  We  can  also  dismount  from  a 
standing  camel  by  grasping  the  projecting  bar  of  the  saddle 
with  one  hand  and  sliding  down  by  means  of  the  other  on 
the  sloping  hindneck.  On  remounting,  after  our  seat  has 
been  improved,  we  employ  the  second  method  for  a  change. 
The  camel  stands,  we  grasp  with  one  hand  that  important 
saddle-bar,  the  driver  forms  one  step  with  his  back  or  his 
hand,  the  hollow  of  the  animal's  neck  forms  a  second,  and 
this  being  reached  we  climb  as  gracefully  as  we  can  into  the 
saddle.  It  is  certainly  still  better  to  emancipate  one's  self 
entirely  from  the  driver,  to  compel  the  camel  to  lower 
its  neck,  and  to  get  the  knee  upon  this  by  swinging  one's 
self  up  with  one  hand  on  the  saddle-bar,  whereupon  the 
animal  itself  raises  both  neck  and  rider,  who  can  now  obtain 
fall  possession  of  his  seat.  During  the  latter  operation,  how- 
ever, the  animal  is  again  on  the  march,  which  makes  turning 
one's  self  somewhat  difficult.  A  person  should  likewise  learn 
to  make  the  animal  let  him  down  when  travelling  alone,  and 
how  to  bring  it  to  the  trot,  and  also  how  to  dismount  when 
on  the  march.  But  this  belongs  to  the  higher  branches  of 
the  riding  art ;  we  are  glad  if  we  can  mount  and  dismount  in 
any  manner  without  damage. 

CARAVAN  DONKEYS. 

Should  riding  on  camel-back  not  prove  to  our  taste  we " 
have  at  our  command  the  asses  of  the  desert,  of  which  con- 
siderable numbers  always  accompany  and  complete  the  cara- 
vans. In  spite  of  their  tender  feet  they  are  able  to  drag 
about  a  hundredweight  over  hill  and  dale  without  breaking 
down.  With  their  short  steps  they  have  enough  to  do  to 
keep  up  with  the  long-legged  camel.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  get  the  sluggish  animal  to  go  farther  alone;  but  it  follows 
the  caravan  cheerfully.     It  would  be  wholly  in  vain  to  try 


ON   THE  MARCH.  215 

to  get  a  good  trot  or  a  gallop  out  of  these  caravan  don- 
keys— which  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the  riding  donkeys 
of  the  Nile  valley  as  the  load-carrying  camel  to  the  trotting 
camel — unless  they  should  have  remained  till  they  were  some 
distance  behind  the  caravan.  Between  camels  and  donkeys 
there  are  many  resemblances  in  structure,  nature,  and  char- 
acter, and  they  live  together  pretty  sympathetically. 

ON  THE  MARCH. 

The  caravan,  consisting  of  from  a  dozen  or  two  up  to  50 
or  100  camels,  at  last  gets  seriously  on  the  march.  The 
drivers  like  to  go  in  company,  less  for  security,  since  in  this 
desert  there  is  nothino^  to  fear,  than  for  convenience  and 
society.  They  help  each  other  in  loading  and  unloading,  re- 
lieve each  other  in  driving,  and  at  other  times  mount.  What 
one  has  not  taken  with  him  another  perhaps  has;  the  animals 
themselves  are  in  better  humour  and  spirits,  and  run  better; 
several  strong  good  camels  give  the  time  in  running,  and 
none  will  remain  behind.  The  drivers  on  this  route  are 
mostly  Fellahs  of  Upper  Egypt  or  Ababdeh  Bedouins,  partly 
the  owners  of  the  animals  themselves,  partly  mere  servants 
or  slaves.  The  march  generally  continues  the  whole  day 
without  a  rest;  the  stilted  gait  of  the  walking  machine  ap- 
pears slow  and  sluggish — a  pedestrian  at  a  good  walking 
pace  easily  goes  far  ahead  of  the  caravan — but  it  is  telling, 
uniform,  and  continuous,  and  if  a  person  lags  behind  for  any 
reason  he  soon  sees  the  caravan  far  ahead  of  him,  and  has 
hard  work  to  overtake  it. 

The  fertile  soil  soon  ceases,  for  it  just  reaches  as  far  as  the 
overflow  of  last  harvest  extended;  it  is  only  exceptionally 
that  here  and  there  some  small  gardens  like  oases  are  met 
with,  in  the  desert  certainly,  but  not  far  from  the  cultivated 
surface,  and  fed  by  a  deep  well,  in  which  the  subsoil  water 
collects.  Before  us  lies  a  widely-extended  terrace  land,  which 
rises  almost  imperceptibly.  Small  undulating  hills  cross  it 
transversely  and  longitudinally.  This  region  is  apparently 
devoid  of  all  organic  life;  wherever  the  eye  turns  there  is 


216  UPPER  EGYPT. 

nothing  but  hopeless  gray.  Only  in  a  few  depressions  be- 
tween the  hills,  where  the  water  of  the  winter's  rain  (which 
generally  falls  only  once)  has  collected  and  formed  a  torrent, 
a  small  plant  or  a  bush  grows  here  and  there,  amid  sheets  of 
clay  neatly  collected  and  left  behind  it  by  the  stream.  We 
look  backwards,  and  already  see  stretching  far  below  us  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  and  the  mountains  on  the  west  of  the 
valley,  there  forming  the  beginning  of  the  Libyan  desert; 
before  us  we  see  distant  grayish-white  ranges  of  limestone 
mountains  running  in  all  directions,  with  valleys  between 
them,  which  imagination  might  clothe  with  rich  verdure  and 
smiling  homesteads,  since  in  the  distance  they  assume  exactly 
the  appearance  of  the  fruitful  fields  of  a  mountainous  region 
in  a  happier  clime. 

The  soil  on  which  we  are  marching  is  not  loose  sand,  but 
very  solid  gravel  and  limestone.  We  have  not  to  do  with  a 
sandy  desert  here.  A  light  dust-cloud  can  scarcely  be  raised 
by  a  storm,  and  the  heavy  drift  sand  immediately  collects 
again  at  various  spots  under  the  protection  of  the  hills.  The 
path  taken  by  our  caravan  is  little  inferior  in  firmness  and 
solidity  to  a  regularly-constructed  road,  and  since  it  is  gene- 
rally level,  might  be  traversed  without  special  difficulty  even 
by  a  velocipede.  The  steps  of  the  camels  have  marked  out 
many  lines  of  ruts,  each  the  breadth  of  a  foot,  which  wind 
along  it  longitudinally,  and  between  which  are  so  many  raised 
lines  of  loose  and  seldom  trodden  gravel.  Camels  prefer 
to  move  along  the  beaten  track,  and  the  firmness  of  the  ruts 
increases  with  the  amount  of  the  traffic.  Nothing  else  is 
done  to  keep  up  the  road;  wdiat  it  is  it  is  in  itself  Project- 
ing stones  no  one  thinks  of  removing.  The  animal,  whose 
centre  of  gravity  the  load  now  throws  forward  on  the  fore- 
legs, runs  down  smaller  and  gentler  slopes  at  first  slowly 
and  cautiously,  but  strikes  into  a  trot  for  a  few  steps  before 
reaching  the  bottom  of  the  declivity — a  serious  matter  for 
the  rider  and  for  wares  easily  broken.  Gullies  cut  by  moun- 
tain torrents  run  abruptly  across  the  road,  forming  sharp 
breaks  which  cause  the  camels  to  stumble.  It  crosses  these 
with  lumbering  lootsteps,  and  always  at  the  risk  of  a  broken 


ON   THE  MARCH.  217 

leg.  It  is  only  suited  for  the  level  ground.  At  difficult 
points  it  turns  aside  of  itself  On  the  whole,  however,  a  fall 
is  a  rare  occurrence.  Pashas,  who  like  to  ride  in  carriages, 
as  was  formerly  the  custom  during  their  pilgrimages,  no 
longer  use  this  route  at  the  present  day;  some  English  ladies 
have  themselves  carried  by  natives  in  palanquins  the  whole 
long  road. 

On  this  advanced  terrace  the  landscape  offers  little  that  is 
interesting.  Instead  of  it  we  amuse  ourselves  with  the  inex- 
haustible study  of  the  camel,  including  its  shadow,  which 
changes  with  every  movement  and  every  hour;  with  the 
rustic  but  eloquent  language,  and  the  rude  but  kindly  char- 
acter of  the  drivers,  whose  cudgels  fall  far  oftener  upon  the 
donkeys  than  upon  the  faithful,  or  at  least  not  unduly  labour- 
shirking,  camels;  and  with  their  fresh  but  somewhat  mono- 
tonous mountain  songs,  general^  religious  in  character;  we 
interchange  with  them  a  short,  deep-bowled  desert  pipe, 
which  is  filled  with  the  coarse  country  tobacco,  and  is  lighted 
by  means  of  durrah  pith  with  flint  and  steel.  We  have  also 
enough  to  do  with  ourselves.  That  infernal  apparatus  on  the 
saddle  makes  itself  increasingly  felt  in  spite  of  all  bolstering, 
we  sink  deeper  and  deeper  in  our  seat,  the  upper  part  of  our 
body  is  swayed  forcibly  backwards  and  forwards  with  every 
advance  of  the  ship  of  the  desert,  a  movement  which,  to  be 
sure,  brings  on  nothing  of  the  dizziness  of  ^ea-sickness,  but 
is  generally  not  long  in  giving  the  novice  pains  in  the  back. 
We  at  last  become  tired  of  riding,  and  take  to  walking  for 
a  stretch  as  a  refreshing  change. 

Meanwhile  the  caravan  has  reached  a  spot  of  a  brown  or 
dark-yellow  appearance,  where  the  tread  of  the  camels  on  the 
compact,  hardened,  and  smooth  en  ed  soil  becomes  almost 
inaudible,  and  a  peculiar  and  often  pungent  smell  becomes 
perceptible.  This  is  a  urinariuni  (mahwala).  The  animals 
lialt  of  themselves,  or  at  a  clacking  cracking  sound  made  by 
the  drivers,  and  add  their  contribution  to  the  keeping  up  of 
the  peculiar  soil.  By  these  remarkable  spots,  which  recur  at 
tolerably  equal  intervals,  and  therefore  serve  as  excellent 
milestones,  the  drivers  and  Bedouins  reckon  their  journeys, 


218  UPPER  EGYPT. 

and  they  are  accordingly  of  some  importance  to  travellers  in 
the  desert. 

CAMPING  AT  NIGHT. 

The  caravans  do  not  halt  at  mid-day,  as  unloading  and 
loading  gives  too  much  trouble  to  the  drivers;  both  man  and 
beast  must  therefore  make  their  breakfast  last  till  evening. 
Luncheon  or  a  drink  of  water  may  be  taken  while  sitting  on 
camel-back  on  the  march;  accordingly  the  journey  proceeds 
with  little  interruption  from  morning  till  evening.  The 
shadows  become  longer,  the  mountains  and  the  horizon 
assume  a  ruddy  hue,  and  the  caravan  begins  to  think  of  its 
quarters  for  the  night,  so  that  supper  and  the  camp  may  be 
prepared  before  daylight  is  gone.  The  camels,  too,  are 
obviously  tired  out;  they  often  look  round  about  and  begin 
to  pick  up  and  eat  the  balls  of  dung  dropped  by  their  brothers. 
In  this  operation  the  drivers  now  vie  with  them,  but  they 
select  only  the  older  and  drier  to  serve  as  fuel.  The  caravan 
turns  aside  from  the  path  and  seeks  out  some  soft  and  quiet 
spot  sheltered  from  the  wind. 

We  dismount,  get  our  carpet  and  head-cushion  spread  on 
the  soft  dry  soil,  and  lie  down  immediately  with  great  satis- 
faction ;  for  our  back  is  in  want  of  the  support  we  have  long 
had  to  dispense  with,  and  we  can  now  stretch  and  move  our 
legs  at  our  leisure.  The  carpet,  or  it  may  be  only  the  soft 
sand  of  the  camp,  is,  to  one  who  travels  by  the  ship  of  the 
desert,  like  the  land  to  the  sea-sick  traveller  by  sea.  In  this 
condition  a  drop  of  brandy  is  a  very  healthy  medicine  in  hot 
or  cold  weather,  and  quickly  dispels  all  fatigue.  Not  less 
effective  is  a  cup  of  tea  or  coffee,  but  these  take  some  time  to 
prepare.  If  we  have  no  servant  the  driver  readily  attends 
to  us,  but  as  soon  as  he  has  made  our  couch  ready  he  leaves 
us  in  the  lurch  in  order  to  look  after  his  beasts.  Making 
them  lie  down  one  after  the  other,  he  removes  their  loads. 
They  do  not  lie  down  of  themselves,  and  if  not  attended  to 
would  prefer  to  run  about  with  their  loads  in  search  of  pas- 
ture.  They  are  now  fed  in  the  way  we  have  alread}^  described. 


CAJklPING  AT  NIGHT.  219 

In  the  evening  only  the  bag  of  beans  is  usually  given  them, 
while  in  the  morning  they  are  allowed  to  fill  their  bellies 
with  chopped  straw.  They  get  water  when  any  is  to  be 
had.  In  order  to  keep  them  from  straying  in  search  of  pas- 
ture one  of  their  fore-legs  is  tied  up,  so  that  they  can  only 
move  by  hopping  along.  The  donkeys  have  both  their  fore- 
legs tied  together.  It  is  only  now  that  the  driver  thinks  of 
us  and  of  himself.  He  is  our  guest  and  we  his,  for  in.  the 
freedom  of  the  desert  there  is  no  distinction  of  ranks,  and 
Bedouin  law  prevails.  The  fire  is  either  made  with  brush- 
wood brought  with  us  or  picked  up  by  the  way,  or  with  dried 
camel's  dung,  which  gives  a  very  good  coal  fire.  So  soon  as 
it  is  ablaze  coffee  is  made,  and  afterwards  some  simple  dish 
is  cooked,  generally  lentils,  since  Esau's  time  the  favourite 
food  of  the  desert,  and  to  it  we  eat  the  biscuits  we  have 
brought  with  us,  that  is,  toasted  ordinary  bread  softened  in 
water.  If  we  think  cooking  is  too  roundabout  a  process,  we 
content  ourselves  with  hard-boiled  eggs,  dates,  date-bread, 
cheese,  or  still  better,  pigeons,  fowls,  or  butcher-meat  roasted 
at  home.  The  drivers  always  like  to  have  something  warm; 
they  take  out  of  their  sacks  a  wooden  dish,  each  gives  his 
contribution  of  flour,  they  knead  a  lump  of  simple  unleavened 
dough,  spread  it  over  a  gridiron,  lay  this  above  the  glowing 
camel's  dung,  generally  directly,  but  sometimes  with  an  iron 
plate  between,  and  cover  it  above  with  another  plate.  In 
this  way  is  made  the  desert-cake,  the  hurs,  the  chief  and 
favourite  food  of  the  drivers.  These  now  take  their  meal  in 
common,  inviting  everybody  around,  travellers  and  Bedouins, 
to  share  with  them,  and  we  too  have  to  try  the  toothsome 
piece  of  pastry  and  pretend  to  like  it.  On  the  remains  of 
the  dung  fire  we  place  once  more  a  cofiee-pot,  and  cause  the 
bitter  Mocha  to  be  served  out  to  our  hosts. 

Meanwhile  it  has  become  dark,  one  star  after  another 
breaks  through  the  darkness,  and  soon — so  short  is  twilight 
in  these  latitudes — the  vault  of  heaven  stretches  in  its  full 
untroubled  splendour  above  the  camp.  The  company  light 
their  pipes  and  chat  aw^ay,  sitting  in  the  well  known  favourite 
squatting  position.     When  it  is  cold  the  groups  draw  more 


220  UPPER  EGYPT. 

closely  together,  and  crouch  around  the  oft-poked  fire  of 
dung.  Everybody  then  lies  down  among  his  baggage  on  the 
sand,  or  on  the  ever-serviceable  cotton-plush,  which  to-day 
has  already  been  used  as  a  plaid,  a  head-covering,  a  fodder- 
cloth,  a  sack,  and  a  basket,  and  now  becomes  a  carpet  or  a 
coverlet.  For  the  cold  nights  of  winter  one  would  do  well 
to  provide  himself  with  a  heavy  cotton  and  also  a  woollen 
cover.  A  tent  is  seldom  used  for  these  short  distances; 
carrying  it,  pitching  and  taking  down  is  considered  too 
troublesome  by  the  people.  As  a  protection  from  the  bois- 
terous winds  of  winter,  a  barrier  is  constructed  with  bales  of 
goods  or  bags,  and  at  night  a  person  draws  the  coverlet  over 
his  head,  the  glare  of  the  sun  is  kept  off  by  forming  a  kind 
of  awning  with  the  ever-present  wrapping  cloth.  No  one 
gives  his  personal  safety  a  thought,  the  whole  caravan  scarcely 
possesses  a  single  firearm.  For  in  this  desert,  or,  at  least,  in 
this  part  of  it,  there  are  no  robbers  nor  murderers,  not  even 
thieves,  unless  belonging  to  the  company.  Attacks  by  hyenas 
or  otlier  wild  animals  inhabiting  the  mountains  are  unheard 
of  Only  when  the  camp  is  made  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
human  dwellings  one  has  to  take  care  that  the  thievish  dogs, 
or  even  the  sheep  and  goats,  do  not  get  at  the  stores,  since 
at  unguarded  moments  they  snap  up  bread,  &c.,  though 
lying  beside  us  and  even  under  our  pillows.  Thus  the  whole 
caravan,  both  men  and  beasts,  soon  sink  into  a  deep  and 
well-earned  slumber. 

THE  MORNING  CAMP. 

The  coolness  of  the  morning  breeze,  which  ceases  soon  after 
the  morning  star  rises  above  the  mountain,  arouses  the 
sleepers.  Packing  is  quickly  finished  and  the  camp  broken 
up;  the  morning  camp,  which  to  the  camel-driver  appears 
indispensable,  partly  because  the  animals  must  be  fed,  partly 
because  he  must  take  his  own  breakfast,  will  be  held  at  the 
neighbouring  water-station.  On  the  eastern  horizon  appears 
a  glimmer  that  becomes  brighter  and  brighter,  forms  become 
more  distinct,  the  tops  of  the  mountains  are  illuuiined,  as 


DAY  MARCH.  221 

the  sun  rises  we  bear  a  barking,  and  immediately  afterwards 
we  distinguish  Imman  abodes,  the  dog,  the  man,  and  the 
water.  None  of  these  four  objects,  in  the  desert  at  least,  is 
to  be  thouojht  of  without  the  others. 

The  caravan  leaders  otherwise  do  not  pay  much  attention 
to  stations;  the  caravan  marches  from  morning  to  evening, 
and  passes  the  night  at  whatever  spot  it  may  have  arrived  at 
about  sunset,  human  dwellings  are  even  avoided  on  account 
of  the  dogs.  Water  is  drawn  at  the  watering  places  in  pass- 
ing, the  skins  are  filled  and  the  camels  watered  standing. 
The  desert  village  Laketa,  however,  is  not  so  lightly  regarded 
as  a  station.  There  fowls,  pigeons,  sheep,  and  goats  are  to  be 
had,  and  also  company  besides  the  villagers,  as  several  cara- 
vans are  always  met  with  here,  either  resting  from  their 
journey  or  strengthening  themselves  for  a  fresh  one;  fruits 
and  vegetables,  brought  by  the  caravans,  may  often  be 
obtained  from  them.  At  the  same  time,  on  the  return  journey 
to  the  Nile  valley,  when  the  main  portion  of  the  difficult 
road  has  been  traversed,  the  traveller  treats  himself  to  a  little 
good  eating  here,  cooks  for  himself  at  least  some  pigeons,  and 
the  richer  individuals  make  a  present  of  a  sheep  to  their 
companj^ 

DAY  MARCH. 

We  are  again  seated  aloft  on  the  camel-divan;  we  see 
before  us  wide  flat  tracts,  bounded  by  a  transverse  chain. 
One  crown  of  hills  after  the  other  bounds  the  horizon,  a  new 
one  always  succeeds,  showing  so  near  through  the  clear  air, 
though  by  the  measure  of  reality  so  far  removed.  There  too, 
at  the  distance  of  a  quarter  or  half  a  league,  lies  a  lake,  there 
follows  another  and  again  another,  a  whole  system  of  lakes, 
some  of  them  even  fringed  with  palms.  But  everyone  knows 
that  they  are  mere  illusions  of  the  malicious,  mocking  devil, 
they  are  the  hahr  esh  sheithan,  while  the  man  of  science  calls 
such  atmospheric  reflections  a  kind  of  fata  morgana,  in 
which  the  ground  plays  the  part  of  the  silvering  of  a  mirror, 
and  the  strata  of  air  immediately  above  it  that  of  the  reflecting 
glass. 


222  UPPER  EGYPT. 

The  sun  rises  higher  and  higher.  Were  we  in  regions  a 
little  farther  to  the  south  it  would  send  its  rays  perpendicu- 
larly down  upon  our  heads  at  mid-day  in  summer.  We  see 
and  feel  the  twenty-sixth  parallel  of  latitude.  The  glare  of 
the  sunlight  on  the  clear  gray  ground  dazzles  the  eye,  which 
requires  a  pair  of  desert  spectacles  to  subdue  the  glare.  Tlie 
atmosphere  is  extremely  rare  and  dry,  not  sultry,  but  in  this 
district  as  a  rule  there  are  no  air-currents  of  any  force,  and, 
accordingly,  the  sun's  rays  act  with  full  power  upon  terrestrial 
objects,  and  among  these  in  the  first  place  on  our  noses,  faces, 
and  the  backs  of  our  hands.  After  a  j  ourney  in  the  desert  these 
parts  are  always  at  least  reddened  and  browned,  even  at 
the  cool  season.  If,  however,  parts  of  the  body  less  accus- 
tomed to  the  light  are  exposed,  even  for  a  short  time,  to  the 
glare  of  the  sun,  as  for  instance  when  the  trousers  slip  up  in 
riding,  an  erythema  is  caused,  and,  in  an  aggravated  form,  an 
outbreak  of  a  multitude  of  little  watery  pustules,  accompany- 
ing a  burning  eczema  that  gives  us  plenty  to  do  for  some  days, 
not  to  mention  the  peeling  off  of  the  sunburned  skin  for 
weeks  after.  The  skin  is  the  more  tender  the  clearer  it  is. 
One  would  expect  the  opposite,  seeing  that  a  burning-glass 
does  not  light  a  paper  cigarette.  And  yet  the  Fellah,  the 
Bedouin  of  this  desert  (the  Abadi),  and  the  Moor,  exposes 
the  whole  of  the  dusky  surface  of  his  body  to  the  burning  sun 
without  inconvenience.  This  must  be  nothing"'.but  the  effect 
of  custom.  According  to  the  oriental  custom,  taught  by  experi- 
ence and  also  adopted  by  Europeans,  the  head  must  be  the 
more  thickly  covered  the  higher  the  temperature  is,  and  if  it  is 
uncovered,  even  for  an  instant,  a  person  unaccustomed  to  such 
exposure  is  immediately  liable  to  the  severe  phenomena  of  sun- 
stroke— fainting,  headache,  excited  circulation,  somnolence, 
extreme  feebleness,  and  not  seldom  even  instant  death.  The 
Abadi  wears  no  cap  on  his  curly  head  either  in  summer  or 
winter,  and  even  on  the  smooth-shaved  poll  of  the  Fellah,  who 
often  cultivates  his  field  in  summer  bareheaded,  the  glowing 
sunbeams  beat  without  effect.  In  such  warm  days,  with  the 
thermometer  at  76  J°  F.  in  the  shade,  a  journey  in  the  desert 
is  of  course  no  pleasure,  and  unless  people  have  urgent  busi- 


DAY  MARCH.  223 

ness  they  put  off  their  journeys  till  a  cooler  season  of  the 
year,  autumn  and  spring  by  preference.  It  appears  a  very 
feasible  plan  then  to  march  at  night  and  camp  during  the 
da}^  But  this  plan  has  also  this  great  disadvantage,  that 
from  morning  till  evening  a  shady  spot  can  scarcely  anywhere 
be  found.  If  a  person  buries  himself  among  bales  of  goods, 
or  keeps  inside  a  tent,  he  excludes,  along  with  the  sun,  such 
slight  currents  of  air  as  there  may  be,  and  at  last  prefers  to 
seat  himself  again  on  his  camel,  covering  head,  hands,  and 
all  other  parts  as  well  as  possible,  and  holding  up  his  white 
umbrella  lined  with  green. 

But  the  samum  or  poison-wind  also  blows  frequently  in 
these  regions  at  the  hot  season  of  the  year.  In  the  afternoon 
the  wind  generally  veers  round  and  blows  from  the  west — 
from  the  Sahara  and  the  Libyan  deserts.  The  atmosphere, 
previously  so  clear,  becomes  darkened,  impregnated  as  it  were 
with  atoms  of  sand,  the  sky  has  a  grayish  appearance,  the 
sun  looks  like  a  yellowish -pale  or  reddish  disk;  one  sand 
cloud  after  another  rolls  up,  lashes  the  traveller  turned  towards 
it  in  the  face,  and  rubs  his  eyes  till  they  are  sore.  While 
the  air  of  the  desert  in  its  dryness  was  previously  so  agi-ee- 
able  and  healthy,  the  glowing  samum  renders  the  body  dry, 
relaxes  the  limbs,  and  produces  a  prickling  of  the  nerves 
like  that  caused  by  electricity;  the  traveller  feels  he  cannot  go 
farther,  and  camps.  The  samum  that  came  on,  now  gently, 
now  roaring  and  storming,  generally  ceases  after  a  few  hours, 
and  air  and  sky  again  become  clear.  This  peculiar  west 
wind  breaks  on  the  middle  mountains,  into  the  valleys  of 
which  it  hardly  penetrates,  and  it  scarcely  ever  reaches  the 
maritime  border  of  the  mountains  and  the  sea. 

We  are  now  somewhat  more  than  20  leagues  from  the 
Nile  valley.  The  country  we  have  hitherto  crossed  has  been 
a  great,  almost  level  terrace-land,  the  soil  being  gravel  or 
limestone.  Sandstone  now  makes  its  appearance,  and  the 
hills  and  mountains  come  more  closely  together  and  begin  to 
form  the  sides  of  valleys,  while  with  these  at  last  some  vege- 
tation appears,  hitherto  wholly  absent.  The  sandstone,  which 
is  yellowish  or  reddish  in  colour,  rises -sometimes  from  the 


224  UPPER  EGYPT. 

valley  bottoms  in  lofty,  isolated,  quadrangular  rocks,  water- 
worn  on  all  sides;  such  a  rock  among  others  is  the  so-called 
Maiden's  Castle  (Kasr  el  bandt).  But  soon  dark,  lofty,  steep 
mountain  masses  show  themselves  and  seem  to  bar  the  way. 
We  can  no  longer  march  so  straight  onwards  as  before,  a  deep 
narrow  valley  winds  through  the  hard  rock  which  belongs  to 
the  primeval  mountains.  Bare  rocks  show  themselves  every- 
where, torn  with  wild  ravines  and  chasms,  the  mountain 
walls  are  covered  with  loose  blocks,  both  large  and  small,  but 
with  no  soil.  These  threaten  to  crush  the  traveller;  a  number 
of  them  have  indeed  fallen  down  into  the  valley  and  lie  right 
in  the  path.  At  the  entrance  to  this  valley,  beside  the  caravan 
route,  is  a  cistern,  the  well  called  Hamamat;  there  are  several 
such  on  the  road,  and  a  good  many  among  the  mountains. 
They  are  generally  deep,  built-up  wells,  from  which  the  water 
is  drawn  up  by  leathern  buckets,  or  a  stair  leads  down  to  them, 
a  structure  of  which  a  son  of  the  country  longing  for  cool- 
ness not  infrequently  makes  use  to  descend  to  bathe  in  the 
cool  basin  below,  from  which  others  obtain  their  water  for 
drinking  and  cooking.  Along  the  whole  road,  but  especially 
in  this  valley,  antiquities  belonging  to  the  ancient  Egyptian 
and  the  Greek  periods  are  seen. 

The  route  that  the  caravan  takes  lies  on  the  whole  in  a 
single  transverse  valley  from  the  Nile  to  the  sea,  and  of  such 
there  are  several  to  choose  from.  Here  a  multitude  of  cara- 
vans are  daily  encountered,  embracing  from  one  or  two 
animals  up  to  hundreds,  and  generally  carrying  nothing  but 
corn  from  the  highly-favoured  Nile  valley  to  the  sea-port, 
the  corn  being  thence  exported  to  Arabia,  which  is  poor  in 
this  commodity.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  cross  the  water- 
shed, which  there  forms  a  high  valley  4  or  5  miles  in  length, 
sinking  at  both  ends  in  the  form  of  a  steep  rocky  ravine.  For 
a  camel  to  cross  such  passes  is  just  within  the  bounds  of  pos- 
sibility. The  camel  is  at  home  only  on  level  ground;  at  such 
places  it  is  apt  to  stumble,  though  it  attempts  with  its  natural 
caution  to  find  a  suitable  spot  on  which  to  plant  its  every 
footstep;  at  places  that  appear  to  it  very  difficult  it  often 
stands  helpless,  till  the  driver  leads  it  over  by  the  bridle. 


MARCHING  AT  NIGHT.  225 

To  go  up  a  slope,  however,  is  a  much  easier  matter  for  it  than 
to  go  down  one.  Slipping,  falling,  and  broken  bones  are  hj 
no  means  rare  in  such  circumstances,  and  it  is  always  better 
to  dismount  both  for  our  own  sake  and  that  of  the  animal. 
Animals  that  have  fallen  and  broken  some  of  their  bones  are 
left  lying  on  the  spot;  some  fodder  is  given  to  them,  and  they 
are  handed  over  to  the  care  of  the  neighbouring  Bedouins 
until  they  have  recovered,  or  till  the  butcher  who  has  bought 
them  for  a  trifle  arrives  from  the  next  town.  At  such  spots 
are  found  a  multitude  of  stones  and  cairns  erected  by  human 
hands;  these  are  mementos  of  their  presence  set  up  by  the 
passing  pilgrims. 

Thus  we  wander  onwards  in  the  mountains;  narrow  valleys 
and  ravines  alternate  with  opener  areas  more  resembling 
plains;  lofty  mountains  several  thousand  feet  high,  with 
chains  of  hills  formed  of  debris;  absolutely  desert  tracts,  with 
oasis-like  spots  and  steppes  nourished  by  a  visible  or  in- 
visible well.  Here  is  no  longer  the  waste  loneliness  of  the 
plantless  outer  terrace;  the  geologist  admires  the  variety  and 
the  structure  of  the  primary  rocks  everywhere  laid  bare,  the 
botanist  plucks  the  small  and  ephemeral  plants,  the  zoologist 
hunts  and  collects,  as  well  as  it  can  be  done  on  the  march, 
the  antiquary  inspects  the  ruins  and  deciphers  the  inscrip- 
tions. 

MARCHING  AT  NIGHT. 

Still,  these  mountains  are  but  a  desert,  and  we  strive 
to  get  out  of  them  as  soon  as  possible.  We  arrange  with 
the  leaders  of  our  caravan  to  make  a  journey  by  night, 
and  having  pitched  our  night-camp  at  some  suitable  place, 
we  break  up  about  midnight  and  move  along  by  the  dark 
mountain  heights.  It  is  not  pitch  dark,  the  starlight  of  the 
southern  sky  shining  through  the  transparent  atmosphere 
lights  up  the  path  sufficiently  to  prevent  us  from  making  any 
false  step,  although  the  ruts  or  trodden  paths  appear  to  us 
to  wind  deceitfully  up  and  down.  The  camels  go  faster  in 
the  cool  night  air  than  by  day,  and  the  casual  highway  fodder, 
as  yet  invisible,  does  not  distract  their  thoughts.     For  hours 

16 


226  UPPER  EGYPT. 

on  end  we  hear  nothing  but  the  gentle  tread  of  the  soft  soles 
of  our  animals,  and  at  times  a  "Hi!"  from  the  watchful 
driver,  and  the  thwack  of  a  cudgel  on  some  of  the  donkeys, 
which  cannot  follow  the  quicker  night  pace  of  the  camels.  Our 
eyes  and  thoughts  are  forcibly  drawn  from  the  terrestrial 
desert  lying  invisible  around  us  to  the  infinite  region  of  the 
spheres  of  light.  We  find  again  the  constellations  of  the 
North  from  the  polar  star  and  the  Bears  to  the  brilliant  Orion, 
and  discover  now  too  the  great  Scorpion  in  its  whole  length, 
the  Southern  Crown,  and  still  just  above  the  horizon  Canopus. 
The  driver,  like  every  Egyptian,  is  an  accomplished  astro- 
nomer; but  the  names  he  gives  to  the  constellations  and  his 
manner  of  grouping  the  figures  often  vary  from  those  depicted 
on  European  maps  of  the  stars. 

From  the  stars  our  thoughts  wander  to  the  countries  of 
that  more  northern  region  to  which  we  belong;  we  recall  to 
mind  the  blessings  derived  from  the  superior  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  the  flourishing  state  of  art  and  science,  the  mighty- 
advances  made  by  commerce  and  industry,  the  order  in  civil 
and  political  life,  the  power  and  the  riches  of  the  nations, 
lastly,  the  power  of  public  opinion,  fighting  on  the  side  of 
justice  and  morality.  Directly  the  contrary  of  all  this  is 
what  we  see  in  Mohammedan  states.  But  we  find  that 
amidst  the  blessings  of  civilization  there  swarm  all  kinds  of 
gnawing  cancerous  sores  and  examples  of  glaring  wretched- 
ness; and  the  Frank  is  by  no  means  justified  in  always  look- 
ing down  upon  the  Oriental  as  the  sick  man.  The  Moslim 
is  essentially  a  natural  man  guided  by  faith  in  his  religion, 
which,  when  rightly  interpreted,  is  as  capable  of  giving  him 
the  stamp  of  a  good  man  as  any  other.  That  art  and  science 
can  flourish  also  on  the  soil  of  Islam  history  shows,  and  that 
a  Mussulman,  who  is  a  true  believer,  is  not  necessarily  a 
fanatic,  any  one  may  convince  himself  who  has  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  both  country  and  people.  To  be  sure,  as  things 
are  at  present  Islam  is  numbed  and  petrified,  and  aU  high 
effort  is  wanting  to  its  believers. 

Moreover,  as  the  Frank  looks  down  upon  the  Oriental  on 
account  of  his  ignorance,  so  does  the  Oriental  look  down 


MARCHING  AT  NIGHT.  227 

upon  the  Frank  on  account  of  a  multitude  of  customs  that  to 
him  appear  strange,  ridiculous,  undignified,  even  indecent, 
and  the  Oriental  is  not  so  far  wrong;  indeed,  the  Frank  who 
has  become  orientalized  in  his  ways  latterly  laughs  at  him- 
self for  many  things  that  he  formerly  did,  and  thought 
natural  and  matters  of  course.  The  Oriental  detests  above 
everything  the  emancipation  of  women,  which  he  stigmatizes 
as  indecent,  shameless,  and  immoral;  in  his  eyes  a  ball  is  an 
act  by  which  the  husband  calmly  allows  his  wife,  the  father 
his  daughter,  to  revel  in  the  arms  of  a  stranger.  Indulgence 
in  wine  and  spirits  is  the  other  chief  symptom  in  which  the 
Moslim  believes  he  detects  civilization.  The  Frank  also 
appears  to  him  as  unclean,  because  he  uses  as  food  pork, 
blood,  and  carrion,  that  is,  the  flesh  of  animals  that  have  been 
strangled,  not  properly  slaughtered,  and  because  he  does  not 
wash  or  bathe  before  meals,  nor  generally  after  them,  nor  in 
connection  with  his  devotions,  and  not  a  great  deal  at  other 
times;  from  the  throne  of  his  dignity,  clad  in  his  long  flowing 
robes,  he  criticises  the  goings  on  of  the  army  of  Frankish 
fops,  their  cravats,  their  stiff"  collars,  their  kid  gloves,  their 
chimney-pot  hats,  their  tight  trousers,  their  dress  and  other 
coats,  the  many  different  forms  of  their  beards  ("the  Franks 
have  no  dignity  in  their  beards"),  and  such  like.  And  none 
of  the  strange  fashions  of  the  women  escape  him,  any  more 
than  their  falseness,  unnaturalness,  and  want  of  taste. 

It  is  the  scum  swimming  on  the  top  that  first  meets  the 
eyes  of  the  novice,  and  in  indignation  he  pours  out  the  whole 
un  tasted  contents  of  the  proffered  cup  of  civilization,  or  he  him- 
self becomes  the  victim  of  this  scum.  He  is  only  too  ready  to 
adopt  the  vices  of  the  Frank  without  giving  up  his  own  and 
adopting  the  virtues  of  his  model.  Since,  in  Egypt  at  least, 
it  is  attempted  to  introduce  forcibly  a  kind  of  superficial 
civilization  from  the  top  downwards,  the  people  will  soon 
degenerate  if  the  healthy  kernel  which  exists  in  the  Mosliras 
does  not  exercise  a  counteractive  eflfect  until  at  last  true 
civilization,  which  is  unceasingly  spreading,  shall  pave  a  way 
for  itself. 

All  at  once  we  awake  from  the  wild  improbable  dreams  to 


228  UPPER  EGYPT. 

which  the  rocking  gait  of  our  steed  has  lulled  us;  we  have 
slipped  down  a  little  and  lost  our  balance.  It  is  a  wise  pro- 
vision of  nature  that  in  such  cases  the  sleeper  awakes  just 
before  the  crisis.  We  hold  on  by  something  or  other,  fear 
seems  to  have  quite  dispelled  sleep,  and  we  rejoice  that  we 
are  still  far  from  the  miseries  of  civilization,  of  which  we  have 
been  dreaming  in  the  ever  free,  unsullied  desert.  But  in  a 
few  minutes,  through  the  constant  action  of  our  cradle,  we 
again  fall  asleep,  to  start  up  suddenly  as  before.  In  this  pain- 
ful intermediate  state  between  sleeping  and  waking,  which 
often  means  as  much  as  between  death  and  life — for  many  a 
man  has  ere  now  met  his  death  by  sleeping  on  his  camel,  or, 
at  least,  has  fallen  and  broken  his  limbs — we  look  with  envy 
upon  our  native  companions,  the  drivers,  who,  placed  aloft, 
snore  for  hours  on  end  in  the  most  perpendicular  positions, 
their  feet  hanging  down  on  one  side,  their  head  on  the  other, 
right  across  the  camel.  The  camels  march  on  instinctively, 
even  when  the  driver  has  fallen  asleep;  but  sometimes  one 
of  them,  often  the  very  one  that  carries  the  sleeper,  remains 
standing,  and  it  may  happen  that  when  we  come  to  look 
around  us  we  find  ourselves  quite  alone  in  the  wilderness, 
and  neither  shouts  nor  the  report  of  a  gun  can  reach  the  ear 
of  the  guide  who  has  fallen  asleep  and  been  left  leagues 
behind  us.  As  a  rule,  however,  a  person  joins  a  whole  cara- 
van, and  then  the  driver  who  is  keeping  watch  has  to  march 
behind  on  foot. 

THE  LITTORAL  SLOPE  OF  THE  MOUNTAINS. 

The  night  march  has  helped  our  progress,  and  by  the  time 
it  is  day  we  have  reached  the  littoral  slope  of  the  mountains. 
The  air,  the  soil,  the  water,  the  rocks,  the  structure  of  the 
mountain,  and  to  some  extent  also  the  animals,  plants,  and 
people,  change  their  character.  A  fresh,  pure  sea  breeze 
blows  from  the  north,  or,  laden  with  clouds  and  moisture, 
the  warm  and  oppressive  south-east  wind  (Asidb),  which, 
along  with  the  always  pleasant  north  wind  and  the  cold 
north-east  (masri),  rules  the  winter  half-year,  and  which  is 


CONFIGUKATION  OF  THE  MOUNTAINS.  229 

kept  from  reaching  the  Nile  valley  by  the  intervening  moun- 
tains, as  the  samum  from  the  west  has  its  progress  eastwards 
arrested.  The  springs  that  here  and  there  occur  have  a  very 
bitter  taste,  and  sometimes  give  out  a  smell  like  that  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  In  places  the  soil  appears  loose,  crusty, 
yellowish,  moist,  as  it  were,  spongy,  and  impregnated  with 
a  saline  fluid.  A  bitter,  perennial  rivulet,  the  Ambiga,  makes 
a  vain  attempt  to  trickle  farther  down  into  the  valley,  and 
gives  a  verdant  existence  to  a  grove  of  rushes,  but  after  a 
few  days'  rain  becomes  a  raging,  devastating  stream. 

Already  at  a  distance  the  most  striking  feature  of  this 
littoral  portion  of  the  mountains  is  the  long-stretching  ridges 
of  white  limestone  hills  which  rise  youthfully  between  and 
among  the  dark  and  ancient  primary  rocks.  The  heart  of 
the  traveller,  fatigued  with  his  long  journey  through  the 
desert,  beats  high  when  he  sees  them,  since  his  goal,  the  sea, 
must  be  near. 

From  the  bare  hill-terrace  that  spreads  out  before  us  we 
perceive  on  the  eastern  horizon  a  bluish-black  band  which 
separates  the  earth  from  the  clear  blue  vault  of  heaven.  The 
camel  accelerates  his  pace  as  we  march  down  a  valley  of  no 
great  slope,  that  of  the  Ambagi.  This  opens  out  more  and 
more,  we  hear  behind  the  last  hills  a  roaring  and  booming, 
and  at  last  we  stand  before  a  town,  the  seaport  of  Koseir, 
and  on  the  shore  of  the  eternal  sea,  after  traversing  a  stretch 
of  43  leagues,  to  accomplish  which  the  caravans  require  four 
or  ^ve  days  on  the  *'up  journey,"  that  is,  when  going 
from  the  interior  to  the  sea,  and  three  or  four  on  the  "down 
journey,"  from  the  sea  to  the  Nile  valley. 


II.— THE    NATIJIIE    OF    THE    DESEHT. 

CONFIGUKATION   OF  THE  MOUNTAINS. 

The  mountain  mass  which  we  have  crossed  is  apparently 
a  confused  agglomeration  of  mountains  and  valleys  where  no 
brook  nor  river  affords  a  safe  guide.    But  abundant  traces  of 


230  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  action  of  water  compensate  for  this  want,  and  it  is  gener- 
ally easy  to  trace  out  the  river  and  valley  systems,  even  if 
the  region  is  not  traversed  on  those  rare  days  after  winter 
rains  when  the  rivers  really  exist.  Channels  are  seen  on  the 
sides  of  mountains,  traces  of  brooks,  of  waterfalls,  beds  of 
rivers,  some  of  them  streams  with  wide  valleys  of  embouchure. 
Nay,  along  the  very  summit  of  the  mountain  mass  runs  a 
regular  water-shed,  from  which  the  waters  must  run  either 
westwards  into  the  Nile  valley,  or  eastwards  into  the  Red 
Sea. 

RAIN   AND   RAINWATER-STREAMS. 

During  summer  the  sky  is  almost  always  entirely  blue  and 
cloudless;  at  the  winter  season,  however,  the  tops  of  the  moun- 
tains are  often  enveloped  in  clouds,  especially  after  moist 
south  and  south-east  winds.  Then  the  sonl  of  every  dweller 
in  the  desert  is  filled  with  new  hope;  if  the  clouds  become 
denser  and  blacker,  the  children  march  about  with  white 
streamers  and  shout,  Ya  Allah  idina  sel,  ehna  'ahida/c  u  el 
cher  hi  idak,  that  is,  ''Dear  God,  give  us  a  rain  stream;  we 
are  thy  servants,  and  blessing  is  in  thy  hand.''  The  women 
and  girls  make  a  cross-shaped  frame  with  two  pieces  of  timber, 
put  a  shirt  and  a  veil  on  it,  and  carry  this  figure  about  in 
houses  and  courts  with  singing  and  trilling.  Hitherto  the 
dweller  in  the  desert  town  (Koseir)  has  had  to  get  his  fresh 
water  brought  in  skins  a  distance  of  several  days'  journey, 
from  springs  in  the  mountains,  and  paid  dear  for  it.  But  now 
he  hopes  to  be  able  to  obtain  the  precious  liquid  himself  before 
his  own  door,  and  to  fill  his  store  vessels  with  a  supply  for 
months  to  come;  the  Bedouin  hopes  that  the  mountain  wells 
will  be  filled,  that  pasture  will  be  procured,  and  the  dead- 
lying  desert  revivified.  But  very  often  these  hopes  are 
cheated;  the  north  wind,  that  rules  everything,  begins  to 
blow,  and  in  a  moment  the  sky  is  again  clear  and  blue.  Two, 
three,  even  four  years  may  pass  without  the  aqueous  vapour 
falling  in  a  bounteous  rain.  Still  the  attempt  of  the  southern 
sky  to  pour  out  rain  is  often  successful,  once  at  least  on  an 
average  in  every  winter,  and  then  it  often  does  its  duty  in 


KAIN  AND  KAINWATER-STREAMS.  231 

superabundant  measure.  In  the  midst  of  incessant  thunder 
and  lightning,  as  if  a  dozen  storms  had  joined  together,  the 
rain  pours  down,  being  often  mixed  with  heavy  hailstones. 
The  flat  roofs  of  the  houses  of  the  desert  city,  which  houses 
are  built  of  unburned  bricks  made  without  chopped  straw, 
give  way  "like  sugar;"  if  they  are  not  in  good  condition  the 
water  makes  a  hole  through  the  ceiling,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  room,  the  terrace,  the  court-yard  are  converted  into  a 
lake,  the  streets  become  lagoons,  filth-swamps,  and  streams, 
which  sap  the  foundations  of  the  houses,  so  that  some  fall 
at  once  or  after  a  few  days.  In  the  mountains  the  Bedouin 
flees  with  his  tent  and  all  his  belongings  to  the  more  ele- 
vated points  of  the  valleys  or  to  the  hills.  The  caravans, 
thoroughly  drenched,  must  come  to  a  halt,  and  do  not  reach 
their  destination  without  difficulty  and  danger,  caused  by  the 
slippery  ground,  here  and  there  converted  into  a  torrent,  or 
only  after  a  very  circuitous  route. 

Fortunately,  however,  these  downpours  do  not  last  long, 
and  now  old  and  young  march  out  of  the  town  to  look  at  the 
river  that  has  filled  the  valley,  many  also,  particularly  the 
women,  to  bathe  in  the  cool  stream,  not  seldom  to  the  danger 
of  their  lives.  All  who  have  strength  enough,  men,  women, 
and  children,  convey  the  newly  fallen  fresh  water  in  pitchers 
or  skins  into  the  houses;  all  the  donkeys  and  camels  are 
loaded,  and  the  water  caravans  from  the  mountains  find  their 
labour  lost,  and,  emptying  out  the  mountain  water  they  have 
carried  so  far,  set  to  work  in  the  river  with  the  rest.  For  it  is 
only  a  short  time  that  the  water  of  the  rain-torrent  remains 
fresh;  in  a  few  days,  when  the  flow  ceases,  it  absorbs  salt  and 
bitter  elements  from  the  soil,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  stream 
falls  uselessly  into  the  sea,  instead  of  being  stored  up  in  cis- 
terns. 

At  other  times  the  clouds  discharge  themselves  at  a  greater 
distance  among  the  mountains,  and  in  the  town,  on  the  sea- 
coast,  only  lightning  is  seen  and  thunder  heard.  Then  perhaps 
a  Bedouin  will  come  into  the  town  the  next  day  with  the 
strange  information  that  ''the  river  is  coming."  If  only 
a  small  quantity  of  rain  falls  it  is  immediately  drunk  up 


232  UPPER  EGYPT. 

by  the  thirsty  soil  of  the  desert;  if,  however,  it  is  greater,  and 
the  spot  where  the  fall  took  place  is  also  not  very  distant  or 
very  limited,  the  surface  water  gathers  into  rivulets,  the  larger 
valleys  receive  all  the  waters  of  their  tributary  valleys,  and 
thus  the  whole  is  finally  collected  into  a  mighty  stream  in 
the  main  valley,  down  which  it  rolls  like  an  outflow  of  lava, 
when  the  slope  is  small  often  very  slowly.  But  on  many 
occasions  also  the  rain  that  follows  falls  on  the  other  side  of 
the  watershed,  on  the  Nile  side,  in  which  case  the  thirsty 
towns  on  the  Eed  Sea  and  the  dwellers  in  the  Nile  valley 
are  equally  annoyed.  For  the  stream  of  fresh  water  then 
carries  devastation  over  the  laboriously  tilled  fields  of  the 
Nile  peasant,  who  requires  no  other  river  than  his  Nile.  In 
the  Nile  valley  itself  showers  are  far  more  seldom  than  in 
the  mountains. 

The  valleys  of  the  eastern  slope  of  our  mountain  mass 
stand  in  the  closest  relationship  to  the  sea-ports  on  the  Red 
Sea,  which  are  directly  the  result  of  the  former.  For  in 
these  regions  the  sea  is  fringed  along  the  coast  by  a  coral- 
reef,  called  a  coast  reef  Now,  as  is  well  known,  fresh  water 
kills  the  coral  animals.  Accordingly,  where  large  masses  of 
fresh  water  enter  the  sea,  the  coral  polyps  cannot  continue 
their  labours,  and  thus  arise  the  sher7}i,  or  reef-openings  which 
form  these  ports.  As  a  rule  the  size  of  the  shenn  is  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  respective  valley  system. 
Of  course  the  stream  that  at  present  so  seldom  flows  down 
these  valleys,  is  not  sufiicient  to  account  for  the  formation  of 
the  sherm,  scarcely  for  its  maintenance.  We  must  go  back 
to  earlier  times,  when  more  permanent  or  more  frequent 
streams  flowed  through,  and,  to  some  extent,  formed  the  val- 
leys. That  this  must  have  been  the  case  is  testified  by  the 
alluvial  tracts,  the  heaps  of  gravel  and  pebbles  transported 
by  water,  and  the  water-worn  rocks,  phenomena  visible 
everywhere  on  a  large  scale.  Under  present  circumstances, 
when  at  most  a  rivulet  is  formed  only  once  a  year  for  a  few 
days,  a  thousand  years  would  produce  an  equal  result  to  that 
produced  by  a  permanent  stream  in  three  years,  in  rounding 
off  and  wearing  away  the  hard  rocks  of  the  mountains,  and 


GEOLOGICAL  CONSTITUTION.  233 

in  accumulating  such  masses  of  debris.  Similar  observations 
made  in  the  neighbouring  desert  of  Sinai,  so  similar  to  ours, 
perhaps  admit  of  the  inference  that  such  an  abundance  of 
water  continued  down  even  to  historic  times,  seeing  that  the 
Israelites  were  able  to  maintain  themselves  several  years 
round  Mount  Sinai,  while  at  present  only  a  few  Bedouins  roam 
there.  Our  desert  also,  as  numerous  remains  inform  us  (see 
below),  was  formerly  much  more  thickly  inhabited.  This 
mountain  region  is,  therefore,  essentially  an  erosion  desert. 

GEOLOGICAL  CONSTITUTION. 

The  constitution  of  the  surface,  in  its  individual  features, 
naturally  depends  upon  the  geological  formation.  In  the 
west,  towards  the  Nile  valley,  we  have  tertiary  nummulite 
limestone;  here  the  desert  has  the  character  of  a  plateau- 
desert,  like  that  of  the  Libyan  desert,  of  which  it  forms 
merely  a  continuation,  separated  by  the  Nile  valley.  This 
formation  is  followed  on  the  east  by  a  sandstone,  which 
appears  to  belong  to  the  "Nubian  sandstone,"  one  of  the 
latest  members  of  the  tertiary  formation.  The  middle,  the 
heart  of  the  mountain  system,  is  occupied  mainly  by  dull- 
looking  primary  rock,  consisting  of  diorites  (green-stones), 
diorite-breccias,  and  black  or  green-stone  porphyries;  with 
these  are  often  intermingled  very  beautiful  red-coloured 
granites  and  porphyries,  and  massive  highly-coloured  veins 
and  lodes  everywhere  permeate  the  dark  rock.  The  chief 
masses,  those  on  which  the  others,  so  to  speak,  rest,  are  mainly 
composed  of  such  granite,  gneiss  being  less  common.  They 
rise  to  a  height  of  400  feet.  These  rocks  are  nowhere  covered, 
as  in  other  countries,  with  a  layer  of  humus;  but  the  geologist 
is  not  allowed  to  behold  Earth  in  all  her  nakedness,  since  the 
superficial  layer  is  generally  traversed  to  such  an  extent  with 
fissures,  often  of  considerable  depth,  that  it  is  not  easy  to 
break  off  a  fragment  the  size  of  the  fist  showing  a  fresh  frac- 
ture on  all  sides,  while  in  ascending  a  mountain,  from  the 
crumbling  of  the  surface,  a  firm  footing  cannot  be  obtained. 
In  other  districts,  where  much  rain  falls,  this  disintegrated 


234  UPPER  EGYPT. 

rough-casting  is  washed  away;  here  it  remains,  and  the 
whole  of  the  mountains  look  as  if  burned  by  the  sun.  The 
rocks  in  some  ravines,  where  there  are  permanent  waterfalls, 
do  not  show  these  fissures;  they  are  firm,  hard,  and  smooth 
as  marble,  since  the  water  can  take  eflfect  here. 

It  is  not  till  towards  the  Ked  Sea  that  chains  of  stratified 
limestone  mountains  again  appear,  but  they  often  advance 
far  into  the  ancient  mountains.  They  are  mostly  long 
straight  mountain  ridges,  consisting  of  pure  limestone  or 
dolomite,  and  containing  numerous  flint  nodules  interspersed. 
The  fossils  show  them  to  be  genuine  members  of  the  cretaceous 
system.  In  the  valleys  isolated  masses  of  sandstone  occur 
along  with  them,  often  showing  the  action  of  water  all  round 
them,  devoid  of  fossils  and  pretty  rich  in  iron.  The  nearer  we 
approach  the  sea  the  more  readily  do  we  find  in  these  lime- 
stone ridges  organic  remains  of  animals  that  still  live  in  the 
Ked  Sea;  the  transition  from  the  chalk  through  the  tertiary 
fwhich,  however,  here  exhibits  no  trace  of  nummulites)  to  the 
modern  period  is  thus,  therefore,  quite  gradual.  The  interior 
crystalline  mountain  mass  always  stood  out  as  dry  land.  The 
Red  Sea  has  existed  at  least  since  the  cretaceous  epoch,  and 
has  withdrawn  into  its  present  limits  quite  gradually,  and 
this  withdrawal  is  still  going  on,  as  every  one  who  has  dwelt 
long  on  the  coast  knows,  the  fact  being  proved  by  many  har- 
bours, which,  though  celebrated  in  antiquity,  are  now  dry 
land.  Shells  which  are  also  found  in  the  sea,  for  example, 
the  well-known  large  Tridacna,  are  often  found  in  earthy 
layers  unpetrified,  as  if  they  had  been  just  cast  up  by  the 
sea,  but  upon  mountain-spurs  hundreds  of  feet  above  it. 

Many  parts  of  the  limestone  mountains,  especially  of  the 
latest  formation,  are  in  process  of  transition  to  gypsum,  and 
this  is  perhaps  a  consequence  of  the  decay  of  the  animal  sub- 
stances; the  gypsum  is  found  in  all  valleys  that  lead  from  the 
sea  to  the  mountains,  even  large  mountains  and  mountain 
groups  are  converted  into  gypsum.  Other  parts  have  a  ten- 
dency to  crumble  into  the  form  of  dust,  such  as  may  be  seen 
on  walls  built  of  bricks  containing  iron-pyrites;  these  soils, 
which  are  everywhere  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea. 


SPRINGS.  235 

are  called  by  the  Arabs  zabach.  The  cause  is  evidently  the 
attraction  of  moisture  by  the  salts  contained  in  the  stone. 
The  salt  often  separates  in  thick  crusts  and  layers  as  moun- 
tain salt,  which  is  often  dug  for,  since  other  salt,  even  sea  salt, 
is  difficult  to  procure  on  account  of  certain  government  regu- 
lations. Other  useful  minerals  are  not  worked  in  these  moun- 
tains at  the  present  day.  From  many  traces  as  well  as  his- 
torical notices,  however,  we  learn  that  they  were  worked  in 
ancient  times,  in  those  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans,  and  even  the  Arabs  (in  the  fifteenth  century);  there 
were  silver,  gold,  and  copper  mines,  and  in  antiquity  the 
emerald  mines  farther  to  the  south  were  highly  renowned, 
though  they  are  now  unproductive.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  these,  in  the  '*lead  mountain,"  some  lead-glance  is  found, 
but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  worked.  In  digging  for 
these  treasures  in  the  deserts  the  great  obstacle  is  the  diffi- 
culty of  communicating  with  the  outer  world,  and  the  want 
of  water  and  fuel.  That  was  also  the  reason,  combined  with 
the  small  quantity  to  be  obtained,  why  the  working  of  the 
sulphur  mines,  which  lie  farther  north  at  Gimse  opposite  Tor, 
and  southwards  in  Range,  did  not  pay.  Coal  has  often  been 
searched  for,  but  coal  proper  is  entirely  absent,  and  if  any- 
thing of  the  nature  of  coal  is  ever  found  it  will  be  lignite. 
Petroleum  is  found  close  to  the  sea,  near  the  above-men- 
tioned sulphur  diggings  at  Gimse,  on  the  Gebel  Set  or  Oil 
Mountain.  The  ancients  employed  stones  from  these  moun- 
tains in  making  columns,  sarcophagi,  sphinxes,  fcc,  which, 
in  the  neighbouring  ruins  of  Thebes,  still  excite  wonder, 
being  transported  there  by  methods  still  unexplained;  espe- 
cially the  diorite-breccias  from  the  valley  of  Hamamat  (see 
above),  the  so-called  verde  antico,  also  dark  green-stones  and 
red  porphyries  and  granite.  That  this  valley  was  once  a  busy 
scene  of  life  is  evidenced  by  the  numerous  ruins  and  ancient 
Egyptian  sculptures  hewn  in  the  rocks. 

SPRINGS. 

As  in  other  regions  in  forming  their  settlements  men  fol- 
lowed the  course  of  the  rivers,  so  here  in  the  desert  mountains 


236  UPPER  EGYPT. 

tlie  springs  or  wells  have  become  points  of  attraction,  round 
which  the  nomadic  inhabitants  erect  their  huts  until  they 
dry  up.  The  caravans  prefer  to  halt  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  wells;  the  town's  people  must  get  their  water  from 
them;  they  form  the  natural  rendezvous  of  all  the  higher  and 
lower  animals  that  live  in  the  desert.  Vegetation  also  is  usually 
more  luxuriant  than  elsewhere  at  these  moist  spots,  and  ac- 
cordingly these  wells  are  the  natural  centres  of  life  in  the 
desert.  The  rain  which  from  time  to  time  moistens  the 
mountains,  is  fortunately  not  all  carried  by  the  river  to  the 
sea;  a  considerable  portion  penetrates  the  soil,  maintains  itself 
there  for  a  long  time,  and  supplies  moisture  to  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  and  to  the  germs  that  are  slumbering  everywhere 
around.  Another  portion  of  the  water  penetrates  deeper,  and 
here  and  there  appears  again  of  its  own  accord  as  a  spring,  or 
is  brought  to  light  by  digging  an  adit  or  a  deep  well.  In  order 
to  collect  and  retain  the  water  of  the  deep  spring  the  well  is 
then  lined  and  built  up.  Cisterns,  in  the  sense  of  rain-water 
being  directed  into  a  pit  and  kept  there  for  years,  do  not  exist 
in  this  desert.  Immediately  after  rain  has  fallen  these  wells 
are  naturally  richer  in  water,  many  soon  dry  up,  but  some 
hold  out  for  several  years,  even  though  they  do  not  receive 
any  addition  from  new  rain.  At  certain  places  the  springs 
are  so  rich  in  water  that  they  form  permanent  brooks,  which, 
however,  lose  themselves  in  the  sand  after  a  short  course; 
others  precipitate  themselves  over  rocks  in  the  form  of  water- 
falls in  wild  and  romantic  ravines.  These  wells  might  be 
increased  at  will.  On  the  great  caravan  route  from  Kene  to 
Koseir,  which  thirty  years  ago  was  also  tlie  overland  route 
to  India,  the  English  constructed  a  number  of  well-built 
wells,  but  these  unfortunately  are  not  kept  in  repair. 

The  quality  of  the  water  in  the  desert  wells  is,  to  be  sure, 
generally  none  of  the  best;  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  coasts, 
where  limestone  and  dolomite  prevail,  it  is  brackish  or  bitter, 
often  scarcely  drinkable,  in  the  diorite  formation  it  becomes 
more  drinkable,  but  always  contains  some  magnesia,  so  that 
it  is  not  very  suitable  for  washing  and  cooking.  Pure  water 
springs  only  from  the  granite,  the  gneiss,  and  the  diorite- 


VEGETATION.  237 

breccias.  But  this  also  soon  putrefies  when  carried  in  skins, 
and  can  only  be  purified  again  by  allowing  it  to  stand  for 
several  weeks  in  jars.  Oases,  in  the  sense  of  cultivated  spots 
in  the  middle  of  the  desert,  do  not  exist  in  our  district,  but 
they  might  perhaps  be  produced  in  many  places,  and  thus  a 
part  of  the  desert  brought  under  cultivation.  At  Koseir, 
where  the  soil  on  the  coast  is  poor  and  saline,  a  garden  was 
laid  out  many  years  ago,  and  date-palms,  tamarisks,  Nile 
acacias,  and  in  rain  years  many  kinds  of  vegetables,  thrive  in. 
it,  though  not  very  luxuriantly.  The  same  would  be  much 
more  easily  accomplished  on  the  better  soil  of  the  interior  of 
the  desert,  if  a  person  were  only  to  be  at  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  sinking  a  deep  and  abundant  well,  and  cultivating 
the  soil  by  its  means.  Water  exists  wherever  plants  are  found, 
and  the  trees  and  shrubs  scattered  everywhere  do  not  perish 
even  after  several  years  of  drought. 

VEGETATION. 

Our  desert  is  by  no  means  a  perfect  desert,  that  is,  a  tract 
utterly  devoid  of  vegetation,  like  a  great  part  of  the  Sahara; 
on  the  contrary,  after  an  abundant  rain  the  valleys  are  con- 
verted into  verdant  pasture-steppes.  As  early  as  January, 
or  even  earlier,  a  few  weeks  after  the  winter  rain,  green  herbs 
and  bushes  sprout  in  every  hollow,  in  every  ravine,  in  every 
valley,  while  the  old  perennial  plants  put  forth  new  leaves 
and  flowers.  The  flora  is  at  its  finest  from  February  to  April, 
but  after  this  the  sub-tropical  sun  burns  up  one  plant  after 
the  other,  and  in  summer  only  the  deeper-rooted  trees  and 
shrubs  remain.  The  western  plateau-like  portion  of  our 
desert,  however,  in  vegetation  as  well  as  in  appearance, 
more  resembles  the  Libyan  desert,  and  is  very  poor  in 
plants. 

By  far  the  most  common  desert  plant  of  this  region  is  the 
zilla  (the  desert-thorn),  a  small  shrub  with  blossoms  like 
those  of  a  radish;  it  is  this  chiefly  which  from  a  distance 
gives  the  valleys  the  appearance  of  green  meadows.  While 
the  ass,  so  highly  renowned  as  a  thistle-eater,  prudently  holds 


238  UPPER  EGYPT. 

aloof  from  this  thorny  bush,  the  thick-tongued  camel  takes 
the  highest  pleasure  in  chewing  large  quantities  of  the  tongue- 
pricking  shrub  without  losing  a  drop  of  blood;  it  even  swal- 
lows the  strong  prickles  of  the  acacia  with  delight.  If  a 
caravan,  after  a  long  march,  arrives  at  such  a  zilla-steppe, 
all  order  is  at  once  lost,  the  camels  begin  tearing  at  the 
bushes  and  mind  nothing  else,  and  the  only  remedy  is  to 
muzzle  them  with  muzzles  of  cord.  The  dry  zilla,  called 
dris  or  hay,  is  also  eaten  by  the  camel  like  straw;  it  gives 
good  brushwood  for  fire-lighting,  the  dry  bushes  catching 
tire  very  readily,  and  by  kindling  them  we  can  easil}?-  form 
a  picture  of  a  steppe-fire. 

In  many  places  the  broom-like  march  (Leptadenia  jpyro- 
technica)  grows,  a  bush  with  long  twigs  and  generally  leaf- 
less, and  which  is  also  readily  eaten  by  camels.  The  zygo- 
phyllums  are  very  common  desert  plants;  they  are  excessively 
salt,  and  are  eaten  only  by  the  hungriest  Bedouin  camels. 
Though  growing  in  the  driest  years  and  in  the  driest  spots, 
strange  to  say,  these  plants  are  exceedingly  succulent;  yet 
dew  can  have  nothing  to  do  with  their  nourishment,  as 
scarcely  any  dew  falls  in  the  desert.  The  Cleome,  whose 
leaves  exhibit  considerable  resin-glands  on  long  hairs,  is 
noticeable  from  its  growing  in  the  form  of  small  hemispherical 
bushes,  as  round  as  if  cut  with  a  pair  of  shears,  and  from  its 
strong  aromatic  smell,  which,  being  disagreeable  to  the  natives, 
has  procured  it  the  name  of  "stinking."  It  is  disliked  by  all 
the  domestic  animals.  In  rainy  years  there  are  abundance 
of  pasture-plants,  such  as  the  Leobordia,  a  highly-prized 
labiate  plant,  the  scented  composite  plants  Pulicaria  and 
Brochia,  the  rough  Forskalea  and  Anchusa,  a  scentless  Reseda, 
(fee.  The  elegant  astringent  Lotus  arahicus  is  regarded, 
whether  justly  or  unjustly,  as  forming  a  poisonous  food  for 
sheep  and  goats,  which  nevertheless  eat  it.  Shady,  murmur- 
ing tamarisk  groves,  enlivened  with  birds  and  insects,  and 
consisting  of  hundreds  of  trees,  astonish  the  traveller  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  in  the  grayest  and  most  lonely  wilderness; 
and  where  the  soil  is  saturated  with  moisture  by  purling 
streamlets,  that  last  all  the  year  round,  or  lagunes  of  sea- 


VEGETATION.  239 

water,  the  eye  is  gladdened  by  spreading  meadows  of  green 
rushes. 

Medicinal  plants  also  spring  from  the  soil,  especially  the 
bitter  colocynth,  which  everywhere  creeps  along  on  the  borders 
and  slopes  of  valleys,  with  its  cucumber- like  stems,  which 
bear  large  numbers  of  smooth  round  fruits  like  apples,  at  first 
green  and  then  yellow.  The  native  inhabitants  have  a  great 
fear  of  this  purgative  lying  so  close  at  hand;  they  scarcely 
touch  the  apples,  since  these  make  the  hand  bitter,  and  do 
not  care  to  use  them  as  a  medicine;  while  the  Bedouin  fills 
the  rind  of  the  fruit  with  milk,  and  drinks  the  milk  next  day 
as  a  laxative.  Senna,  a  plant  having  a  considerable  papilion- 
aceous blossom  with  large  wings,  is  common,  but  not  here  in 
sufficient  quantity  for  collection,  as  it  is  farther  south  and  in 
Arabia.  The  aromatic  Artemisia  (a  species  of  wormwood) 
also  belongs  to  the  quarter,  as  well  as  the  Calotropis  tree,  with 
its  corrosive  milky  juice,  and  a  shrub,  the  Dcemia  cordata, 
to  which,  where  it  has  connected  itself  with  a  saint  (the 
sheikh  Shatli,  on  the  western  border  of  the  desert  near 
Esneh),  pilgrims  make  journeys  of  many  days'  length,  from 
east  and  west,  in  order  to  rub  their  limbs  with  it. 

Edible  fruits  also  are  not  quite  absent  from  the  flora  of  the 
desert,  but  the  date-palm  is  no  longer  found  wild  anywhere 
here,  though  in  many  places  it  has  become  wild  (in  the  Wady 
Gemal).  In  place  of  it  the  hegelig-tree  (Balanites)  offers  in 
many  places  its  date-like  fruits,  a  fig-tree  (Ficus  pseudocarica) 
grows  on  the  slopes  of  many  of  the  mountains,  but  not  on 
their  bare  and  waterless  tops,  as  the  wonder-loving  fancy  of 
the  natives  of  the  towns  believes.  The  juic}^  green  caper- 
bush  bears  fruits  that  combine  sweetness  with  the  taste  of 
mustard,  but  a  person  has  to  avoid  fruits  that  are  not  ripe 
and  soft,  and  also  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  in  order  to  remain 
within  the  limits  of  the  agreeable.  The  traveller  in  the 
desert  finds  the  agreeable  acidity  of  the  sorrel  very  refreshing, 
as  also  the  berries  of  the  thorny  Lycium,  of  the  trailing  Och- 
radenus,  and  of  the  Nitraria,  the  latter  a  coast  shrub;  the 
longing  palate  also  does  not  despise  the  chewing  of  the  buds 
of  the  above-mentioned  widely-spread  Tnarch,  which,  like 


240  UPPER  EGYPT. 

cheny  stalks,  taste  of  prussic  acid,  nor  does  it  disdain  the 
milky  fruits  of  the  Glossonema,  both  plants  belonging  to  the 
family  of  the  Asclepiadacese,  which  produces  many  other 
poisons  besides. 

The  coast  flora  of  the  desert,  which  requires  the  saline 
vapour  of  the  sea,  is  peculiar.  A  celebrated  plant  is  the 
shora  (Avicennia  oflciTialis),  which  forms  large  dense  groves 
in  the  sea,  these  being  laid  bare  only  at  very  low  ebb.  Ships 
are  laden  with  its  wood,  which  is  used  as  fuel,  and  mauy 
camels  live  altogether  upon  its  laurel-like  leaves.  At  many 
places  the  coast  is  widely  covered  with  bushes  of  the  above- 
mentioned  Nitraria,  of  the  Salicornia,  Statice,  Suseda,  and 
Cyperus,  which,  collecting  the  drift-sand,  stand  always  upon 
a  sand-hill  formed  by  themselves.  Some  of  these  afford  alka- 
line ashes. 

The  desert  flora  is  certainly  not  rich,  but  one  can  soon  col- 
lect in  favourable  years  a  herbarium  of  100  to  150  species. 
Altogether  600  species  are  reckoned  as  belonging  to  the 
Egyptian  deserts.  They  belong,  in  part,  to  families  which  are 
quite  foreign  to  us  northerners,  and  we  find  forms  for  which 
we  look  in  vain  in  the  Nile  valley.  In  addition  to  the  uni- 
versally distributed  families  of  the  Graminese,  Compositse, 
Cruciferae,  Labiatse,  Papilionacese,  fcc,  the  foreign  families  of 
the  Mimosacese,  Moringacese,  Zygophyllacese,  Balanitacese, 
Capparidacese,  Avicenniacese,  Asclepiadacese,  Salvadoracese, 
and  Amarantacese  make  their  appearance,  to  which,  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  desert,  Mesembryanthemacese  are 
also  to  be  added,  Eanunculacese  and  Orchidacese  are  entirely 
wanting,  and  Umbelliferse  almost  entirely.  Fungi  and  mosses 
are  rare.  Some  plants  that  are  annuals  in  the  Nile  valley 
have  to  extend  their  roots  in  the  desert  in  order  to  reach  the 
aqueous  stratum,  and  thus  become  perennial  (see  p.  145). 

THE  ANIMALS  OF  THE  DESERT. 

In  spite  of  the  difficult  conditions  of  existence,  a  consider- 
able number  of  animals  of  various  classes  have  chosen  our 
desert  as  their  home.     Where  plants  are,  insects  are  sure  to 


THE   ANIMALS   OF   THE   DESERT.  241 

be  found.  They  are  hunted  with  most  success  on  warm, 
calm,  and  sunny  days  in  the  spring,  which  begins  as  early  as 
January.  White  and  gay-coloured  butterflies  (Colias,  Pieris, 
and  even  our  common  painted- lady),  in  company  with  bees, 
wasps,  and  flies,  flutter  about  the  flowers,  the  individuals 
often  being  in  immense  numbers,  but  the  species  being  few; 
they  contribute  essentially  to  increase  the  idyllic  effect  of  the 
quiet  valleys.  The  pretty  red  and  white  marked  Euprepia 
pulchra,  a  widely-spread  southern  form,  which  has  even  been 
found  in  the  south  of  Germany,  also  often  shows  itself  Much 
more  abundant  are  the  little  butterflies,  on  plants  and  about 
rocks,  in  the  crevices  of  which  they  conceal  themselves,  but 
especially  at  night  round  the  lanterns  and  the  open  fires. 
The  caterpillar  of  the  sack-spinner  (Psyche)  sticks  to  the 
acacia-trees,  in  its  slender  envelope  shaped  like  a  horn  of 
plenty;  another  with  a  very  short  stumpy  dwelling  is  found 
on  the  tamarisks. 

The  Hymenoptera  are  well  represented.  Large  handsome 
wasps  or  hornets  (Vespa,  Eumenes)  leave  and  enter  their 
nests  (which  are  stuck  to  rocks)  and  fly  long  distances  to 
drink  at  the  springs;  wild  bees  hum  about  the  bushes  in 
blossom,  especially  the  zilla  and  Leptadenise,  and  slender  sand- 
wasps  busy  themselves  in  the  sand  and  around  the  flowers. 
Ants  attack  the  unpacked  stores  ;  their  nests  everywhere 
undermine  the  caravan  road,  and,  like  the  holes  of  the  jerboas, 
cause  the  camels  to  stumble.  There  are  not  many  dipterous 
insects,  but  those  that  do  exist  are  all  the  more  troublesome; 
the  common  house-fly  follows  man  and  beast  to  the  very  heart 
of  the  deserts;  mosquitos  swarm  in  the  larval  form  in  all 
waters,  and  those  that  have  wings  sing  round  and  sting  the 
travellers  camped  by  night  round  the  wells.  A  flesh-fly  flies 
continually  round  the  camel,  probably  on  account  of  the 
galled  places,  which  are  seldom  absent.  The  fly  most  common 
on  plants  is  the  wasp-like  but  harmless  hoverer-fly  (Syr- 
phus). 

The  Neuroptera,  whose  larvse  live  generally  in  the  water, 
are  represented  by  numerous  and  beautiful  forms.  The 
dragon-flies  often  swarm   in   the  greatest   multitudes,  like 

16 


242  UPPER  EGYPT. 

locusts,  and  often  miles  away  from  water.     In  many  rocky 
basins  with  clear  water  the  well-known  case-inhabiting  larvse 

o 

of  the  caddis-flies  (Phryganese)  are  also  found. 

The  desert  is  a  highly  favourable  field  for  the  Orthop terse, 
especially  for  locusts.  These  are  found  everywhere,  and  the 
whole  year  round.  In  certain  years,  and  in  early  summer,  a 
large  species  (Acridium  peregrinuTn)  resembling  the  wander- 
ing locust,  but  distinct  from  it,  appears  in  immense  multi- 
tudes that  destroy  everything;  in  other  years  it  appears,  like 
our  cockchafer,  in  smaller  numbers,  without,  however,  being 
entirely  absent.  Crickets  (especially  Gryllus  bimaculatus)  in 
the  summer  nights  or  in  late  spring  chirp  in  such  numbers 
that  one  might  imagine  that  every  stone  was  singing.  The 
starved-looking  Empusa  and  the  predatory  praying-insect 
(Mantis),  called  by  the  Arabs  the  Prophet's  mare,  may  be 
shaken  off  bushes. 

Hemiptera  (bugs,  &c.),  large  and  small,  are  found  on  and 
under  bushes  and  trees.  The  genus  Centrotus  is  represented 
by  insects  very  common  on  acacias,  on  which  they  stick 
firmly  and  look  like  thorns. 

Many  spiders  are  found  on  bushes,  especially  oh  the  above- 
mentioned  aromatic  Cleome,  others  hop  over  the  surface  of 
the  water;  there  is  also  a  pretty  large  bird-spider.  One  of 
the  most  common  insects  of  the  desert  is  the  camel's  tick 
(Ixodes  dromedarii);  at  every  season  of  the  year  it  runs  about 
upon  the  ground,  especially  under  bushes,  and  attaches  itself 
to  the  anus  of  the  camels  as  they  lie  at  rest;  here  it  sucks 
itself  full  of  blood,  and  then  has  the  appearance  of  a  seed  of 
the  castor-oil  plant.  The  poisonous  tick  (Argas)  is  also  found. 
In  waters  the  red  water-mite  may  be  seen  swimming  about. 
Numerous  large  scorpions  live  under  stones  and  bushes  in  the 
desert,  as  also  in  dwellings;  and  in  limestone  reefs,  especially 
on  the  coast,  the  small  book  scorpions. 

Among  the  beetles  there  is  a  black  beetle  (Adesmia  cothur- 
nata)  more  noticeable  than  any  other;  this  is  the  merry- 
andrew  of  the  desert,  often  turning  itself  over,  with  its  some- 
what disproportionately  long  legs,  in  the  air,  and  it  always 
keeps  its  back  dusty;  on  account  of  its  quiet  and  peaceable 


THE  ANIMALS  OF  THE  DESERT.  243 

life  with  the  scorpions  the  natives  call  it  the  ''scorpion's 
servant/'  Cicindelas  {C.  aulica  and  G.  circumdata)  hop 'about 
in  wet  sandy  places;  and  in  brackish  pools  sport  water-beetles 
of  considerable  size.  There  are  a  large  number  of  other 
coleopterous  insects,  including  Buprestidse,  Carabidse,  Longi- 
cornes,  Weevils,  &c. 

Of  the  large  class  of  Crustacea,  which  is  so  richly  developed 
in  the  Red  Sea.,  there  live  in  the  waters  of  the  mountains, 
especially  after  rain,  only  small  Branchiopoda  (Daphnia, 
Branchipus,  Limnadia),  Lophyropoda  (Cypris),  and  on  the 
moist  earth  in  groves  of  rushes  Amphipoda  (Orchestia)  leap 
about.  The  MoUusca  are  represented  in  this  part  of  the 
mountains  only  by  a  small  water-snail,  the  cosmopolitan 
Melania  fasciolata;  of  land-snails,  so  common  in  the  desert 
near  Cairo,  there  is  no  trace. 

Of  reptiles  there  are  plenty  of  serpents,  venomous  and 
non- venomous,  small  and  very  large,  but  it  is  difficult  to  col- 
lect them,  as  the  Bedouins  of  this  desert  are  afraid  of  them, 
and  there  are  here  no  serpent  charmers,  who  are  so  useful  to 
the  zoologist.  Small  lizards  (Eremias,  Acanthodactylus)  are 
uncommonly  numerous;  ground-agamas  (Agama  Sinaites), 
Mastigures(Uromastix),  and  the  mountain-monitor  (Psammo- 
saurus)  also  occur;  and  geckos  (Stenodactylus,  Ptyodactylus) 
glide  over  moist  rocky  walls  and  the  sides  of  cisterns. 

Among  the  birds  the  great-eared  vulture  (Vultur  auricu- 
laris)  reigns  supreme;  he  wings  his  way  upwards  ''in  the  eye 
of  the  sun,"  and  often  swoops  down  in  dozens  where  a  large 
supply  of  carrion,  such  as  a  fallen  camel,  is  lying.  The  small 
vulture  (Gathartes  percnopterus)  is  much  more  common;  in 
the  desert  town  it  in  some  respects  occupies  the  place  that 
the  stork  holds  in  parts  of  the  European  continent.  No  one 
thinks  of  injuring  this  harmless  and  useful  sanitary  agent, 
who  keeps  shore  and  mountain  clear  of  putrefaction.  His 
favourite  post  in  the  town  is  the  highest  point  of  the  mina- 
rets, to  which,  like  the  weather-cock  on  a  church  steeple,  he 
gives  a  picturesque  termination.  He  is  by  no  means  shy, 
but  does  not  venture  into  the  streets  of  the  town.  Falcons 
and  owls  are  constant  residents  in  the  deserts,  and  the  osprey 


244  UPPEE  EGYPT. 

(Pandion  haliaetus),  that  lies  in  wait  for  the  fishes  of  the 
sea,  also  shows  himself  in  the  mountains.  The  bird  that 
forms  a  figure  in  every  desert  picture,  however,  is  the 
"Noah's  raven,"  which  Noah  sent  out  of  the  ark.  It  is  a 
large  deep-black  raven,  similar  to  the  common  raven,  but  a 
different  species — the  Corvus  umhrinus.  In  the  Nile  valley 
(see  Chap.  III.)  it  shows  itself  but  seldom.  It  is  not  to  be 
shot  with  impunity,  for  it  is  the  ''uncle"  of  the  black 
Sudanese,  and  these  demand  for  their  slaughtered  relative 
the  indispensable  blood-money.  (See  Chap,  vii.)  Other  char- 
acteristic desert  birds  are  the  rock-hen  (Ammoperdix  Ifayi), 
the  sand-grouse  {Pterocles  exustus),  the  desert  larks  (Ammo- 
manes  deserti  and  Calandritis  maeroptera),  and  the  stone- 
chats  (especially  Saxicola  leucocephala  and  Isahellina). 
Wagtails  are  found  at  every  well,  swallows  (Cotyle  ohsoleta 
and  Hirundo  rustica)  flit  through  the  tamarisk  groves,  the 
common  hoopoe  may  be  seen  in  the  very  heart  of  the  desert. 
The  rock-pigeon  (Golumha  livia,  var.  Schim^peri)  nestles  in 
the  rocks  above  the  caravan-road,  and  arrives  in  great 
numbers  from  the  Nile  valley  when  this  is  inundated.  The 
courser  (Gursorius  Isahellinus)  is  half  a  desert  half  a  shore 
bird;  like  many  other  desert-birds  and  desert-animals  gener- 
ally, it  is  ''desert  coloured,"  that  is,  grayish-yellow  or  isabel- 
coloured.  In  winter  the  sea-shore  is  enlivened  by  a  multi- 
tude of  water-birds,  among  them  also  flamingoes  and  giant 
herons.  A  fine  bird's  song  is  not  to  be  heard  in  the  desert, 
only  the  twitter  of  the  stone-chats,  the  peep  of  the  larks,  the 
croak  of  the  raven,  the  scream  of  the  birds  of  prey,  and  at 
night  the  eerie  hoot  of  the  owls. 

The  largest  and  most  formidable  among  the  carnivorous 
mammalia  is  the  hyena  (Hycena  striata).  It  is  not  nearly  so 
bad,  however,  as  its  cry  and  its  appearance;  a  case  of  its 
attacking  and  mangling  men,  or  even  children,  is  scarcely 
heard  of;  since,  fortunately,  cowardice  and  a  depraved  taste 
have,  so  to  speak,  been  bestowed  upon  this  wild  beast,  which 
might  rival  the  tiger.  It  prefers  carrion  to  anything  else,  and 
when  this  is  not  to  be  had  it  extends  its  nocturnal  peregrina- 
tions to  the  sea,  and  breaks  open  shells  for  itself     The  native 


THE   ANIMALS   OF   THE   DESERT.  245 

inhabitants  universally  regard  it  as  a  wicked  enchanter 
metamorphosed,  and  its  flesh,  hair,  and  teeth,  are  things  for 
which  there  is  a  great  demand.  The  lynx  (Felis  chaus),  which 
pursues  the  gazelle,  and  hisses  at  its  enemies,  is  less  common. 

A  small  species  of  fox,  the  Canis  famelicus,  almost  white, 
with  a  red  stripe  down  its  back,  and  with  large  ears,  is  by  far 
the  most  common  carnivorous  animal.  It  forms  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  common  fox  and  the  still  more  elegant 
iennec,  which  represents  it  in  the  Libyan  desert.  Both  belong 
t(j  the  sub-genus  Megalotus,  while  the  Nile  fox  is  quite  dif- 
ferent. The  fishermen  that  catch  fish  on  the  coast  and  salt 
and  dry  them  ashore  are  never  tired  complaining  of  the  auda- 
city of  these  animals,  which  steal  their  fish  and  provisions, 
though  they  do  not  venture  into  the  town.  Like  the  other 
Carnivora  mentioned,  this  fox  spends  a  nocturnal  life.  Foxes 
kept  in  confinement  are  morose  during  the  day;  they  either 
disregard  altogether  the  food  that  is  set  before  them,  or  their 
pupils  contracting  to  a  perpendicular  slit  do  not  enable  them 
to  see  it  properly,  so  that  they  have  to  sniff"  in  order  to  con- 
vince themselves  of  its  presence.  By  day  even  ducks,  fowls, 
and  cats  have  the  boldness  to  snap  up  the  food  of  a  fox  before 
his  very  mouth.  By  night,  however,  such  captive  foxes 
always  make  a  frightful  uproar;  a  fox  that  had  got  loose 
at  night  was  once  caught  as  he  had  just  seized  by  the  neck 
a  duck  that  had  stolen  from  him  during  the  day.  The  eyes 
shine  at  night  like  balls  of  fire.  In  this  country  also  the  fox 
passes  as  the  very  type  of  all  cunning,  and  fables  similar  to 
those  in  which  our  Renard  figures  are  in  the  mouths  of  all, 
the  part  played  by  him  being  usually  that  of  a  kadi  or  judge. 

The  jackal  only  occurs  on  the  border  of  the  desert  next  to 
the  Nile  valley.  The  hare  also  (Lepus  cegyptiacus  or  ahys- 
sinicus  ?)  passes  the  active  part  of  its  existence  chiefly  in  the 
night;  its  droppings  are  found  in  great  abundance,  especially 
in  tamarisk  groves.  The  elegant  jerboas  and  sand-mice 
(Haltomys  and  Meriones)  dwell  in  burrows  that  run  obliquely 
into  the  ground,  and  by  them  and  the  ants  the  caravan 
roads  are  everywhere  undermined;  they  come  out  mostly  by 
night  and  gather  the  camels'  dung.     A  pretty  little  animal, 


246  UPPER   EGYPT. 

but  one  very  difficult  to  catch,  is  the  daman  or  Hyrax. 
The  only  antelope  that  occurs  is  the  graceful  and  beautiful- 
eyed  gazelle  (Antilope  dorcas),  which  is  common;  it  browses 
by  day  on  bushes,  and  seems  not  to  despise  the  thorny  zilla. 
It  is  not  till  we  go  farther  south  that  more  species  of  ante- 
lopes begin  to  appear.  The  Steinbok  (Capra  heden)  is  not 
uncommon,  but  the  Bedouins  of  this  desert  have  not  the 
courage  and  the  dexterity  to  hunt  it,  while  the  Sinai  Bedouins 
produce  specimens  to  order.  On  level  ground  it  is  said  to  be 
easily  captured;  but  when  there  is  danger  it  makes  imme- 
diately for  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  where  it  dexterously 
clambers  about,  and  can  only  with  difficulty  be  reached. 

Among  domestic  mammals  the  one-humped  camel  plays 
the  chief  role  in  the  desert;  the  ass  accompanies  every  caravan 
as  sack-carrier;  the  horse  is  not  employed.  Sheep  and  goats 
are  kept  and  pastured  by  all  the  Bedouins.  All  Bedouin 
settlements  have  dogs,  which  are  generally  red-haired  and 
make  faithful  guardians. 

THE  NATUEALIST  IN  THE  DESEET. 

We  have  crossed  the  desert  from  west  to  east,  but  must 
restlessly  continue  to  wander,  in  order  to  reach  our  distant 
goal  as  soon  as  we  can.  But  we  now  perceive  how  rich  in 
natural  treasures  it  is,  and  these  must  be  sought  for  and  col- 
lected on  special  scientific  tours.  It  were  best,  of  course,  if 
in  such  unexplored  regions  as  our  desert  still  continues  to  be 
the  division  of  labour  could  be  introduced,  the  geographer 
observing  exclusively  his  routes,  the  geologist  his  stones,  &c. 
But  when  one  is  alone  he  has  to  turn  his  attention  to  every- 
thing, and  that  also  has  its  charm;  and  ifc  is  more  easily 
accomplished  in  the  desert  than  elsewhere,  since  there  is  not 
a  confusing  and  overwhelming  number  of  objects  to  be 
observed.  Thus  regions  apparently  so  wearisome  and  mono- 
tonous become  a  field  of  perpetual  activity,  and,  so  far  as 
results  are  concerned,  of  rich  enjoyment.  Here  the  route 
must  be  laid  down  with  chronometer  and  compass;  there  is 
a  plant  which  has  never  been  seen  or  collected  before;  there 


THE  NATUKALIST  IN  THE  DESERT.  247 

we  see  a  quadruped  or  a  bird  that  call  the  gun  into  opera- 
tion, a  bush  that  must  be  shaken  for  insects,  a  swarm  of 
insects,  a  lizard  that  must  be  caught  with  the  hoop-net,  a 
peculiar  mountain  formation,  or  a  layer  rich  in  fossils,  where 
hammer  and  chisel  have  to  work;  or  a  sketch  is  to  be  drawn 
of  a  landscape,  a  Bedouin,  or  a  tent.  Lastly,  as  there  is  not 
time  on  the  march  to  make  observations  of  any  completeness, 
it  may  be  recommended  as  an  excellent  plan  to  select  cer- 
tain places  as  central  points,  from  which  one  can  at  leisure 
investigate  the  surrounding  country,  now  for  one  scientific 
object,  now  for  another.  The  best  season  for  this  region  is 
the  spring,  from  the  middle  of  February,  or  even  from 
Januar}^,  to  the  middle  of  April.  Above  all,  years  are  to  be 
selected  in  which  life  has  been  awaked  by  rain.  In  addition 
to  all  this  labour,  baggage  must  be  prepared,  which  is  as 
necessary  to  the  shortest  tour  as  to  a  great  expedition.  For, 
however  simply  one  lives,  he  will  require  large  supplies  of 
provisions  for  himself  and  servants,  water-skins,  a  cooking 
apparatus,  wrappings  and  a  carpet  for  the  night,  and  a  camel 
to  carry  the  whole.  As  driver  and  guide  an  Ababdeh  Bedouin 
is  hired,  who  may  also  act  as  attendant  and  assist  in  collect- 
ing; it  is  still  better  if  one  has  a  special  servant  who  under- 
stands hunting  and  collecting,  and  can  set  the  traps.  The 
investigator  had  better  walk  the  greatest  portion  of  the  way 
on  foot,  since  it  is  not  easy  to  make  observations  on  camel- 
back,  still  less  to  write.  At  intervals  he  will  get  tired  out, 
and  then  he  can  rest  on  the  back  of  the  camel. 

As  one  of  the  most  widely  useful  implements  for  a  journey 
in  the  desert,  the  butterfly  hoop-net  cannot  be  too  highly 
praised.  Besides  its  original  purpose,  namely,  for  catching 
winged  insects,  it  may  also  be  used  to  receive  them  when 
shaken  from  a  bush,  as  a  net  for  water- animals,  serpents,  and 
lizards;  also  as  a  sunshade,  and  thrown  over  the  head  as  a 
protection  for  the  eyes  against  the  strong  glare,  against  sand- 
storms, and  against  bitter  winds,  at  night  as  a  mosquito  net, 
in  drinking  wormy  and  muddy  water  as  a  strainer,  also  as  a 
sack  for  provisions  that  require  sifting  (lentils,  for  instance), 
and  as  a  flagstaff  for  the  scattered  company.    Lastly,  it  lends 


248  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  traveller  the  nimbus  of  a  pious  pilgrim,  since  these  ar« 
in  the  custom  of  hanging  out  white  pennons  behind  their 
seat  on  the  camel. 

The  day's  labours  being  over,  towards  evening  a  spot  is 
selected  for  the  camp,  after  which  supper  is  cooked  and  eaten 
with  huge  appetite.  After  supper  the  company  seat  them- 
selves in  a  circle  under  the  wonderful  star-bespangled  heavens, 
or  in  the  moonlight,  warming  themselves  at  the  fire  when  it 
is  cold,  and  now,  puffing  away  at  his  pipe,  one  man  retails 
all  the  wonderful  stories  he  has,  another  strikes  up  a  song, 
the  Bedouin  blows  his  shepherd's  flute,  or  executes  a  war- 
dance  for  our  amusement. 


III.— INHABITANTS    Oin    THE    DESEHT. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  DESERT. 

These  mountains  were  inhabited  and  visited  by  men  from 
the  very  earliest  times.  This  is  attested  by  monuments,  in- 
scriptions, and  antiquities  of  various  kinds,  as  well  as  by  the 
accounts  of  the  ancient  geographical  and  other  writers  (Strabo, 
Ptolemy,  Diodorus,  Agatharchides,  Pliny).  The  inscrip- 
tions at  Hamamat  (see  above)  go  back  to  more  than  2000 
years  before  our  era  (sixty-fifth  dynasty);  Eamses  III.  of  the 
twentieth  dynasty  (thirteenth  century  B.C.)  opened  here  a 
new  road  by  which  the  treasures  of  India  and  Arabia  (the 
land  of  Pan)  were  brought  by  way  of  Koptos  to  Egypt. 
Under  Ramses  IV.  8368  labourers  and  officials  (among  them 
also  Hebrews)  were  daily  employed  in  the  ''Bechen,"  that  is, 
the  modern  mountains  of  Hamamat,  in  quarrying  the  fine 
stone  of  the  locality  for  the  works  of  art  at  Thebes,  perhaps 
also  in  mines,  and  they  were  supplied  with  provisions  from 
the  Nile  valley,  the  provisions  being  drawn  in  carriages  by 
oxen  (so  that  there  were  no  camels!).  We  find  here,  too, 
inscriptions  of  later  date  containing  the  names  of  the  Persian 
kings.    These  mountain  roads  became  of  still  greater  import- 


HISTORY   OF   THE  DESERT.  249 

ance  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies — to  some  extent  also  of  the 
Romans — when  the  great  emporia  of  the  Red  Sea,  Philoteras, 
My  OS  Hormos,  and  Leucos  Portos,  were  in  their  glory.  The 
stone  camping-places  standing  at  intervals,  constructed  of 
rough  blocks  without  mortar,  as  well  as  the  watch-towers  on 
the  mountain  peaks,  probably  belong  to  this  period,  although 
inscriptions  seem  to  be  wanting.  The  ancient  Greeks  called 
these  erections  hydreumata,  the  Arabs  call  them  weJcalat  en- 
nusara,  that  is,  ''caravans  of  the  Christians."  Many  such 
are  found  also  in  other  localities  in  the  mountains,  especially 
at  watering-places;  a  number  of  these  ruins  are  probably  to 
be  regarded  as  camping-places  of  miners.  In  any  case,  this 
desert  was  very  much  frequented  in  these  ancient  times.  In 
the  later  times  of  the  Ptolemies,  when  Berenice  became  the 
principal  port,  the  chief  route  ran  more  towards  the  south, 
also,  however,  terminating  at  Koptos.  In  the  early  times  of 
Islam,  too,  the  route  for  both  trade  and  pilgrims  ran  more 
southwards,  to  the  once  important  place  Aidab,  near  Suakin; 
in  the  eighth  century  of  the  Hejra  (fourteenth  after  Christ) 
this  road  was  entirely  given  up  on  account  of  the  plundering 
of  the  caravans  by  the  Bedouins,  and  this  caused  the  downfall 
of  Kus,  where  the  road  terminated,  and  which  rose  to  import- 
ance in  place  of  Koptos  or  Koft.  The  Kene-Koseir  route 
next  rose  into  notice,  especially  since  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
by  the  Turks  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  French  held 
this  road  in  their  possession  for  several  years.  In  the  time 
of  Mohammed  Ali  it  was  much  frequented  by  pilgrims,  and 
by  caravans  with  corn  for  export;  at  this  time  it  w^as  also 
the  overland  route  for  the  English  to  India.  After  the  open- 
ing of  the  railway  to  Suez,  and  that  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the 
importance  of  the  road  has  continued  to  decrease,  and  now 
it  is  scarcely  used  except  by  pilgrims  from  Upper  Egypt  to 
Meccah,  and  a  few  corn  caravans.  We  must  also  add  that 
the  caravan  route  above  described  is  not  the  only  one;  on  the 
contrary,  the  mountains  are  intersected  by  a  number  of  such, 
all  more  or  less  frequented,  and  generally  following  the  valleys 
and  easier  passes,  not  to  mention  a  number  of  smaller  foot- 
paths and  bridle-paths. 


250  UPPER  EGYPT. 


THE    ABABDEH. 


The  inhabitants  properly  belonging  to  our  desert  are 
Nomads  or  Bedouins;  they  call  tliemselves  Abdhdeh  (sing. 
Ahddi).  This  name  occurs  very  early;  the  inhabitants  of 
the  coast  range  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Eed  Sea  (corre- 
sponding to  the  locality  at  present  inhabited  by  the  Ababdeh), 
being  named  Gehadei  even  by  Pliny  (a.d.  70).  The  nomadic 
peoples  inhabiting  these  coast  mountains  south  to  Ethiopia 
are  also  called  Blemyes  or  Troglodytes  by  the  ancient  geogra- 
phers, those  dwelling  on  the  sea,  in  particular,  being  named 
Ichthyophagi.  The  old  Arabian  geographers  and  historians, 
such  as  MakrizijCall  them  Bedya,  a  name  which,  as  Bugaites, 
even  occurs  in  an  ancient  Roman  inscription,  and  at  the 
present  day  is  especially  applied  to  the  Bisharin,  a  race 
closely  allied  to  the  Ababdeh,  and  dwelling  south  from  the 
tropic.  These  peoples  accordingly  have  inhabited  the  same 
country  from  the  earliest  times.  The  Ababdeh  themselves 
maintain  that  they  are  descended  from  the  Gin,  that  is,  a 
kind  of  mountain-spirits,  the  statement  probably  being  the 
same  as  if  they  called  themselves  autochthones. 

In  appearance,  manners  and  customs,  and  dress,  they  are 
entirely  distinct  from  the  Semitic  Arabs  proper  who  inhabit 
the  northern  portion  of  the  desert,  from  Syria  and  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai  to  the  southern  borders  of  Middle  Egypt. 
These  are  here  called  Mdasa  (also  Atuni  or  Hauaddt),  and 
exhibit  the  genuine  Semitic- Arabic  type — a  clear,  pale  colour 
of  skin,  thin,  somewhat  longish  face  with  non-projecting 
cheek-bones,  broad  and  lofty  forehead,  thin  and  sharply  cut 
nose,  strongly  curved  eyebrows,  small  mouth  and  small  lips. 
They  shave  their  heads,  wear  a  turban  or  a  parti-coloured 
head-cloth,  never  go  naked,  and  possess  firearms  and  short 
swords. 

The  Ababdeh,  however,  who  in  former  times  lived  in  con- 
stant feud  with  these  Maasa,  have  a  skin  varying  in  colour 
from  deep-brown  to  black,  along  with  an  almost  Europfeo- 
German  expression  of  countenance,  and  are,  generally  speak- 
ing, a  race  possessed  of  extraordinary  beauty  and  noble  forms. 


THE  ABABDEH. 


251 


An  Ababdeh  Man. 


All  travellers  give  great  prominence  to  this  impression, 
which  is  certainly  heightened  by  the  long  waving  hair  of 
the  head,  whereas  elsewhere  in  these 
regions  only  heads  rendered  artificially 
Laid  are  to  be  seen..  The  Ababdeh  are 
dolichocephalic  and  orthognathous ;  the 
face  is  a  fine  oval,  not  so  long  as  among 
the  Arabs,  the  eyes  large  and  fiery,  the 
mouth  and  lips  neither  large  nor  small, 
the  nose  straight  and  rather  short,  broad 
and  blunt,  than  long.  The  neck  is  long 
and  thin,  the  ear  small  and  roundish, 
the  hair  naturally  straight  or  curled,  but 
not  woolly ;  it  is  artificially  twisted  into 
cork-screw  ringlets,  and  worn  long  and 
uncovered.  In  these  peculiarities  they 
agree  with  the  Bisharin,  Nubians,  and 
Abyssinians,  who  dwell  farther  to  the 
south,  and  to  whom  also  the  general  name  of  Ethiopians  is 
given;  they  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  negroes,  from 
whom  they  are  as  different  as  from  the  Arabs  and  Egyp- 
tians. The  Bisharin  very  closely  resemble  them,  but  are 
somewhat  more  prognathous,  as  well  as  more  muscular, 
and  have  also  a  fiercer  expression  than  the  slim  and  gentle 
Ababdeh ;  they  wear  their  hair  also,  but  shave  the  mous- 
tache, while  the  Ababdeh  let  it  stand.  The  Bisharin  and 
Ababdeh  are  very  closely  related,  and  along  with  some  other 
races  dwelling  farther  to  the  south  are  classed  together  as 
-Bedya." 

The  long  black  hair,  which  is  twisted  into  large  curls  like 
those  which  the  painters  give  to  Christ,  or.  plaited  into  braids, 
flows  down  to  the  shoulders  and  back,  while  on  the  front  part 
of  the  head  a  short  and  very  curly  tuft  projects.  The  hair  is 
the  pride  of  the  Ababdeh  youth  and  man,  and  the  object  of 
the  most  careful,  even  effeminate  attention,  as  is  easily  seen 
by  the  curling-pin  stuck  in  the  hair  behind  or  at  the  side. 
This  is  also  evidenced  by  white  lumps  and  smears  of  grease, 
which,  not  being  properly  rubbed  in,  appears  between  the 


252 


UPPER  EGYPT. 


raven-black  plaits,  and  is  often  carried  in  such  quantities 
that  the  hair  seems  as  if  powdered.     A  small  soapstone  cup. 


Ababdeh  Boys. 

in  which  the  by  no  means  odorous  pomade  is  worked  up,  is 
indispensable  to  the  travelling-bag  of  an  Abadi.     This  luxu- 
riant crop  of  hair  he  always  wears  without 
i^y  ^^y  covering,  as  well  in  the  glare  of  the  sub- 

■  ^  tropical  summer  sun   as  in  the  chill  storms 

of  winter.  The  Bisharin,  the  Abyssinians, 
and  a  portion  of  the  Nubians  have  the 
same  practice.  The  heads  of  very  small  boys 
are  first  prepared  by  the  razor,  small  tufts 
being  left  for  the  later  national  adornment. 
Sometimes  the  excessive  increase  of  vermin 
renders  it  necessary  to  give  up  the  orna- 
Smaii  Ababdeh  Boy.  meut  of  mauhood  for  a  time,  and  the  gray- 
beard  must  cover  his  baldness  with  a  quil- 
ted cap  of  linen. 


DRESS  OF  THE  ABABDEH. 


For  clothes  the  Abadi  wears  besides  the  loin-cloth  a  long 
white  coat  or  shirt  (never  blue  as  among  the  Fellahin),  and 
in  Avinter  perhaps  also  a  light  coloured  and  generally  striped 
woollen  mantle.   When  he  becomes  too  hot  or  uncomfortable 


DKESS   OF   THE   ABABDEH. 


253 


These  weapons  are 


he  even  wanders  through  his  lonely  rocky  valleys  without  a 
coat,  quite  naked.  His  naked  body  is  protected  from  the  heat 
of  the  sun  by  the  brownness  of  his  skin,  wliich  is  generally 
smeared  with  fat  for  the  purpose,  but  still  more  by  custom, 
since  he  generally  passes  his  childhood  in  perfect  nudity.  In 
other  respects  he  has  already,  both  in  dress  and  customs, 
adopted  much  from  the  Fellahin;  the  Ababdeh  of  former 
times,  like  the  Bisharin  of  the  present  day,  wandered  about 
half  naked,  clothed  only  with  a  leathern  apron  and  wrapper, 
and  without  a  shirt.  The  male  Abadi  is  also  fond  of 
wearing  a  ring  in  his  ear.  He  walks  either  barefooted,  his 
feet  being  insensible  to  the  stones,  or  in  sandals;  in  his  hand 
he  often  carries  a  lance;  round  his  upper  left  arm  a  short 
knife  stuck  in  a  sheath  is  always  fastened;  and  sometimes 
also  he  girds  on  a  long  straight  sword.  He  seldom  carries  a 
shield  now-a-days  and  never  a  gun. 
more  for  show  than  for  actual  com- 
bat; he  likes  to  appear  as  warlike  as 
his  forefathers.  At  the  present  day, 
however,  perfect  peace  and  security 
have  long  prevailed  in  his  country. 
Occasionally  he  may  also  kill  some 
game,  but  the  noble  art  of  the  hunts- 
man is  by  no  means  his  forte. 

The  women  clothe  themselves  with 
a  white  cloth  drawn  under  one  or 
both  armpits,  so  that  one  or  both 
shoulders  and  the  arms  remain  free, 
and  over  this  a  large  outer  wrapper, 
also  generally  white,  which  can  con- 
ceal the  whole  form;  in  winter,  in- 
stead of  this  a  mantle  of  brown 
woollen  stuff  is  also  worn,  as  among 
the   female    peasantry  of   the    Nile 

valley.  They  plait  the  hair  from  the  crown  down  into 
many  rows  of  plaits,  the  foremost  of  which,  in  front  of  the 
ear,  has  more  freedom  of  movement  than  the  others.  Like 
all  other  women  they  believe  that  they  are  not  attractive 


Ababdeh  Woman. 


254  UPPER   EGYPT. 

without  ornaments;  they  wear  ear-rings,  necklaces,  buckles 
on  arms  and  feet,  and  above  all  the  inevitable  nose-ring,  like 
their  camels,  an  ornament  they  consider  charming.  Instead 
of  gold,  silver,  and  pearls,  however,  their  poverty  compels 
them  to  limit  their  ornaments  to  brass,  coloured  glass,  and 
shells.  The  smaller  girls  often  wear  the  raad  or  girdle 
round  the  loins,  as  is  customary  among  the  negresses,  and 
nothing  else,  except  that  round  their  head  and  neck  they 
hang  white  shells  and  glass  beads,  which  show  wonderfully 
against  their  nut-brown  skin.  An  almost  idyllic  scene  meets 
the  eyes  of  the  traveller  when,  in  wandering  over  these 
mountains,  he  suddenly,  in  some  lonely  valley,  comes  upon  a 
few  boys  and  girls  of  the  Ababdeh  in  their  almost  paradisiac 
nakedness  tending  their  she'ep  and  goats.  Though  shy  at 
first  they  soon  gain  confidence,  and  give  the  best  information 
regarding  the  road  and  every  little  plant.  Among  the 
Ababdeh  women,  classically  fine,  elegant,  and  slender  figures 
are  often  seen,  seldom  bulky,  but  in  old  age  usually  as  lean 
as  a  rake,  and  on  overcoming  their  first  shyness  they  allow 
themselves  to  be  looked  at  and  spoken  to,  and  they  are  less 
fond  of  playing  bo-peep  than  the  women  of  the  cultivated 
regions  and  the  towns. 

OF  THE  ABABDEH  IN  GENERAL. 

The  country  that  the  Ababdeh  possess  is  the  mountain 
desert  between  the  Nile  valley  and  the  Eed  Sea,  as  far  as  it 
corresponds  to  Upper  Egypt,  accordingly  from  the  latitude  of 
the  town  of  Siout  to  the  Cataracts  of  the  Nile  or  the  tropic. 
They  are  also,  however,  scattered  over  the  Nubian  desert 
to  near  the  Soudan,  and  in  the  Nile  valley  itself  a  number 
of  them  have  settled  in  villages  of  their  own  and  practise 
agriculture.  The  whole  number  of  this  people  may  amount 
to  30,000.  They  are  under  a  chief  of  their  own  race,  who 
again  nominates  the  sheiks  for  the  principal  localities.  The 
dignity  of  chief  is  hereditary  in  one  family  according  to 
patriarchal  law,  that  is,  it  passes  to  the  eldest  of  the  family; 
the  sheiks  nominated  are  quite  dependent  on  him  and  may 


OF  THE  ABABDEH  IN    GENERAL.  255 

be  deposed.  The  grand  sheik  is  a  vassal  of  the  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  but  has  no  tribute  to  pay;  on  the  contrary,  he  receives 
something,  viz.  a  certain  share  of  the  road  dues,  which  the 
Egyptian  government  levies  on  the  caravans. 

Internal  quarrels  among  the  Ababdeh  are  arranged  by  the 
family  elders,  by  those  under-sheiks,  or  by  the  gi-and  sheik. 
The  Egyptian  government  takes  no  part  in  them,  nor  does 
it  raise  any  taxes  or  levy  soldiers  among  the  Ababdeh.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  prince  must  pledge  his  life  and  property 
for  the  security  of  the  desert  roads;  he  must  when  required 
provide  camels  and  guides  for  payment,  but  sometimes  also 
without  it,  and  he  is  bound  to  live  in  the  Nile  valley;  he  is 
thus  to  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  hostage.  This  hostage 
system 'was  first  introduced  here  and  among  other  subjected 
Bedouin  peoples  hy  the  great  Mohammed  Ali,  and  it  has 
kept  its  ground.  The  consequence  of  this  permanent  state 
of  war  is  profound  peace  and  absolute  security  in  these 
inhospitable  tracts.  Before  his  time  these  and  all  other 
Bedouins  were  much  dreaded  robbers;  during  antiquity  and 
the  whole  of  the  middle  ages  they  made  inroads  from  time 
to  time  into  the  cultivated  territories,  and  the  merchants  and 
pilgrims  (as  late  even  as  the  time  of  Burkhard)  only  ventured 
to  pass  through  the  desert  when  armed  and  collected  in  large 
caravans.  All  this  is  now  quite  different,  and  now  even 
articles  that  have  been  lost  may  be  recovered  on  giving 
intimation  to  an  Ababdeh  sheik. 

An  example  of  how  desert  justice  is  administered  is  told 
as  having  occurred  within  the  last  few  years.  A  camel  which 
had  strayed  from  some  caravan  and  was  laden  with  fruit 
was  found  by  a  Bedouin  in  the  Nubian  desert,  the  important 
trade  routes  in  which  are  also  intrusted  to  the  Ababdeh.  As 
in  duty  bound  he  immediately  brought  it  to  the  nearest 
station,  uninjured,  with  all  its  load  on  its  back,  but  not 
without  peeping  in  to  see  what  was  in  the  sack  it  carried. 
This  was  noticed,  and  the  Bedouin  was  condemned  to  death 
for  his  curiosit}^,  "for,"  said  the  sheik,  "if  there  had  been 
gold  in  the  sack  you  would  have  stolen  it  and  not  brought 
back  the  camel." 


256  UPPER  EGYPT. 

The  Ababdeh  prince  must  also,  however,  have  something 
to  live  on,  the  more  so  that  he  is  no  longer  externally  a 
Bedouin,  but  has  become  entirely  Egyptian.  A  regular 
system  of  taxation  cannot  be  carried  out  among  nomads,  and 
accordingly  the  Abadi  must  contribute  a  considerable  mite 
for  his  chiefs  from  everything  that  he  brings  to  market  and 
from  payments  that  he  receives  for  his  services  as  guide,  for 
conveying  goods  by  his  camels,  &c.  Even  that  seems  not  to 
be  sufficient,  since  from  time  to  time  a  sheik  of  the  second  or 
third  rank,  on  commission  from  the  patriarch- prince,  under- 
takes a  little  trip  to  the  chief  settlements  of  the  Ababdeh 
and  into  the  desert,  and  the  good  shepherd  carries  away  with 
him  whatever  seems  to  him  good  among  the  possessions  of 
his  flock,  such  as  camels,  sheep,  or  goats,  and  also  lays  claim 
to  be  honourably  and  hospitably  received  by  those  of  the 
same  rank  as  himself  The  approach  of  such  an  expensive 
visit  or  razzia  is,  to  be  sure,  soon  well  known  throughout  the 
mountains,  and  the  Bedouin  withdraws  with  all  his  goods  into 
the  interior,  so  that  the  sheik  only  finds  abandoned  stations. 
At  such  times  no  Abadi  is  seen  far  or  near,  in  the  markets  no 
sheep,  no  wood,  no  fodder  is  to  be  obtained;  occasionally, 
however,  some  ignorant  Bedouin  or  other,  or  one  who  has 
been  urged  by  necessity,  is  laid  hold  of,  and  he  must  pay  for 
the  others. 

DWELLINGS  AND  HOUSEHOLD  MATTERS. 

The  Ababdeh  have  no  tents,  but  only  huts,  and  these  of 
the  most  wretched  sort.  These  con*sist  of  a  few  poles,  round 
and  over  which  old  straw  mats  are  stretched  to  form  the  walls 
and  roof,  which  is  generally  sloping.  The  whole  is  of  a 
longish  quadrangular  form,  one  of  the  long  sides,  namely  that 
turned  away  from  the  road,  being  open  or  partially  closed  by 
a  hanging  piece  of  cloth,  and  forming  the  door.  The  internal 
space  is  generally  only  two  or  three  paces  long  and  about  four 
feet  high,  so  that  a  person  can  onty  sit  or  lie  inside;  but  indeed, 
the  inhabitants  of  these  regions  generally  cannot  imagine 
that  there  is  any  pleasure  or  domestic  comfort  in  standing. 


DWELLINGS  AND  HOUSEHOLD  MATTERS.  257 

Into  this  the  family  creep,  for  in  every  hut  there  is  room  for 
a  pair  to  live  comfortably,  together  with  a  swarm  of  children. 
An  Ababdeh  settlement  generally  numbers  only  four  to  eight 


Ababdeh  Tent. 

such  huts,  with  as  many  families.  It  is  only  in  a  few  settle- 
ments, such  as  the  desert  village  of  Laketa  (see  above),  which 
contains  about  fifty  dwellings,  in  the  villages  of  the  Nile 
valley,  in  the  Ababdeh  suburb  of  Koseir,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  have  partially  given  up  their  nomadic  life,  that  we  see 
hole-like  houses  of  clay  or  rough  stones,  in  the  style  of  those 
of  the  Nile  peasantry.  Many  dwell  also  at  times  in  natural 
caves,  and  are  therefore  "Troglodytes,"  as  the  ancients  called 
them.  Dwelling  in  these  caves  is  here  somewhat  dangerous 
on  account  of  the  serpents.  In  the  caves  are  found  remains, 
such  as  cinders,  ashes,  blackened  stones,  &c.,  which  generally 
show  them  to  have  been  tenanted,  at  least  temporarily,  by 
men.  The  caravans  often  stop  at  these  for  their  siesta,  and 
perform  their  cooking  in  the  inside,  whence  the  sun  and  wind 
are  excluded.  It  is  possible  that  if  excavations  of  sufficient 
depth  were  made  traces  of  the  ancient  Troglodytes  might  be 
found. 

Other  household  appliances  are  quite  in  keeping  with  the 
wretched  abodes.  They  consist  of  a  few  cooking  utensils  of 
clay  or  soap-stone,  skins  for  water  and  milk,  leathern  buckets, 
drinking-cups  of  wood,  a  wooden  or  leathern  bowl  for  eating 
out  of,  a  few  grinding  stones,  a  straw  mat  or  a  coarse  woollen 
carpet,  and,  for  a  fire-place,  a  few  stones  picked  up  at  random. 
Everything  has  the  provisional,  nomadic  character.  For 
cutting  they  make  use  only  of  an  iron  knife;  they  do  not 

17 


258  UPPER  EGYPT. 

use  flint  (of  which  their  limestone  mountains  are  so  full) 
for  this  purpose,  employing  it  only  to  strike  fire. 

A  LIFE  OF  HUNGER. 

The  food  of  the  Ababdeh  is  chiefly  milk  and  durra.  The 
latter  they  enjoy  either  raw  or  roasted,  or  in  the  form  of 
unleavened  cakes  baked  on  a  glowing  fire  of  camels'  dung. 
The  few  fruits  that  the  desert  affords  are  also  made  the  most 
of.  They  seldom  allow  themselves  to  indulge  in  flesh  meat, 
since  they  sell  their  cattle,  and  are  not  great  hands  at  hunting 
Any  wild  animals  that  they  can  get  hold  of,  however,  they 
consider  dainties,  including  hyenas,  hares,  jerboas,  foxes,  and 
gazelles.  Those  dwelling  on  the  coast  live  chiefly  on  fish  and 
molluscs.  The  better 'sorts  of  these  ,they  sell  fresh  or  dried, 
and  content  themselves  with  those  that  are  despised  by  other 
people,  and  are  always  easily  caught,  even  in  the  time  of 
storms;  coffer-fish,  sea-eels,  rays,  globe-fish,  wrasses,  crabs, 
and  polyps.  The  ground  round  an  inhabited  or  a  deserted 
Ababdeh  dwelling  is  always  covered  with  the  remains  of  these, 
especially  with  the  heads  of  the  globe-fish  (Tetrodon),  which 
are  considered  very  poisonous,  and  are  therefore  always 
thrown  away.  These  denizens  of  the  sea  are  generally  simply 
roasted  on  the  open  fire.  Yet  the  Ababdeh  are  not  in  such  a 
wretched  state  as  were  the  ancient  Ichthyophagi,  according 
to  Strabo.  "These,"  he  says,  "roast  the  fish  at  the  sun,  and 
tread  the  roasted  flesh  into  cakes;  the  back-bones,  however, 
they  gather  together,  and  when  they  cannot  fish,  as  for 
instance  during  storms,  they  eat  these  bones  stamped  into 
cakes;  the  fresh  bones  they  suck.  And  when  they  suffer 
from  thirst,  they  travel  with  their  houses  journeys  of  some 
days'  duration  to  the  wells,  and  flinging  themselves  on  the 
ground  gulp  down  the  water  like  cattle  till  their  bellies  are 
swollen  like  drums." 

The  modern  Ichthyophagi  or  coast  Ababdeh  catch  their 
fish  generally  with  a  spear,  on  reefs  laid  bare  at  ebb  tide; 
some  also  catch  them  with  nets,  especially  the  ring-net;  they 
do  not  know  how  to  use  the  hook  and  line.     They  do  not 


EMPLOYMENTS.  259 

possess  any  kind  of  vessels,  not  even  fishing-boats,  and  on 
the  whole  are  not  fond  of  venturing  on  the  sea.  Their  terri- 
tory is  altogether  on  terra  firmay  including  the  coast  reef. 
Their  neighbours,  the  Bishariyeh,  on  whose  coast  are  many 
islands,  make  use  of  a  raft  in  order  to  reach  them. 

Such  being  their  scanty  fare  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  the  Abadi  is  always  hungry.  When  a  caravan  is 
doing  its  cooking  some  son  of  the  desert  always  makes  his 
appearance,  having  smelled  it  from  a  distance.  He  does  not 
beg,  but  regards  the  persons  eating  with  such  a  dog-like  and 
piteous  air  that  they  cannot  but  invite  him  to  partake,  espe- 
cially the  Moslim,  who  when  he  eats  can  never  allow  a 
stranger  to  stand  without  giving  him  an  invitation.  And 
when  the  camp  is  pitched  beside  an  Ababdeh  settlement  the 
least  signal  brings  the  hungry  and  naked  Bedouin  children 
bounding  up,  who,  with  amusing  eagerness,  stuflf  their 
mouths  with  the  left  pieces  of  bread  and  meat  offered 
them,  and  for  which  they  never  beg.  As  soon  as  the  camp 
breaks  up  hungry  creatures  of  the  desert  of  all  classes  forth- 
with fall  upon  what  it  has  left;  the  children  of  men  vie  with 
the  dogs  in  gathering  the  bones  and  crumbs,  with  the  sheep 
in  scraping  together  the  straw,  with  the  pigeons  in  picking 
up  the  grains  of  corn,  with  the  ravens  in  making  use  of  the 
balls  of  dung.  The  Ababdeh  are  also  able  to  use,  as  their 
daily  beverage,  the  worst  water,  a  pure  solution  of  Epsom 
salts,  when  good  water  is  too  distant. 

EMPLOYMENTS. 

The  chief  employment  of  the  Ababdeh  is  flock-keeping  and 
camel- driving.  They  keep  camels,  goats,  and  sheep,  but  never 
horses  or  cattle.  Some  also  possess  an  ass,  and  they  all  have 
a  dog.  Pasture  is  only  available  for  a  time,  when  winter 
rains  have  fallen,  and  called  the  vegetable  germs  into  life;  in 
the  dry  season,  and  in  dry  3^ ears,  the  herdsman  must  often 
make  long  journeys  in  the  mountains  in  order  to  find  pasture; 
nay  he  must  then  diminish  his  herd,  and  is  even  obliged  to 
hire  himself  out  for  a  time  in  the  Nile  valley  as  an  agricul- 


260  UPPER  EGYPT. 

tural  or  other  labourer.  But  when  his  desert  valleys  are 
once  more  verdant  he  is  sure  to  return  again  to  his  beloved 
fatherland.  The  value  of  the  plants  of  the  desert  as  nutri- 
ment is  certainly  small,  and,  accordingly,  the  cattle  of  the 
Ababdeh,  like  the  people  themselves,  are  lean  and  hungry, 
notwithstanding  that  they  browse  continually  the  whole  day 
and  the  night  too.  In  making  a  journey  with  an  Ababdeh 
camel,  one  would  require  to  take  into  consideration  the  delay  _ 
caused  by  its  almost  constant  eating.  The  water  caravans 
from  Koseir  to  a  well  10  leagues  distant  require  about  thirty 
hours,  those  of  the  Ababdeh  from  two  to  three  days.  The 
Ababdeh  camels  pass  no  bush  without  stripping  it,  and  they 
are  not  disturbed  in  doing  so,  since  they  get  nothing  else  to 
eat,  while  the  camels  of  the  Fellahin  in  journeying  through 
the  desert,  besides  being  allowed  a  little  pasture,  are  always 
fed  at  camping  time  with  straw  and  the  nourishing  beans. 
The  Abadi  at  most  scatters  before  his  camels  a  sackful  of  dry 
zilla  stems  which  he  has  collected  in  the  course  of  the  day  on 
the  route.  The  camels  of  the  Ababdeh  are,  therefore,  always 
lean,  and  not  adapted  for  carrying  heavy  loads,  but  for  the 
same  reason  they  are  excellent  and  celebrated  runners.  A 
good  running  camel,  over  which  it  is  the  custom  to  hang  a 
splendid  sheepskin  as  housings,  and  a  double  saddle-bag  with 
long  tassels,  performs  a  journey  of  40  leagues  in  twenty  to 
thirty  hours,  including  the  necessary  stoppages.  All  the 
Ababdeh  are  excellent  dromedary  riders. 

Some  of  the  Ababdeh  that  live  on  the  coast  are  called 
Shora  Ababdeh;  they  have  settled  at  one  of  the  well-known 
shora  groves  (see  p.  240),  that  grow  in  and  close  to  the  sea, 
and  their  camels  and  other  live-stock  feed  the  whole  year 
round  almost  entirely  on  the  leaves  of  this  tree,  while  they 
themselves  cut  it  down  and  sell  its  timber.  Like  the  other 
coast  Ababdeh  they  also  catch  great  multitudes  of  fish  of 
medium  size,  especially  parrot-fish,  cut  them  up,  salt  them, 
and  sell  them.  Fish  so  prepared  form  a  not  unimportant 
article  of  trade.  Ababdeh  who  live  a  more  settled  life  also 
keep  pigeons  and  fowls. 

The  Ababdeh  derive  their  livelihood  from  converting  the 


EMPLOYMENTS.  261 

products  of  their  country  into  money,  as  well  as  from  stock 
rearing;  in  particular,  they  supply  excellent  fuel  in  the  shape 
of  timber,  brushwood,  camel's  dung,  and  excellent  charcoal 
made  by  themselves  from  acacia  wood;  they  are  therefore 
also  charcoal  burners.  They  also  collect  fodder-plants  and 
medicinal  herbs,  such  as  senna  leaves,  colocynth,  a  kind  of 
wormwood,  and  gum  Arabic  on  the  acacias  so  common  in  the 
desert.  Others  support  themselves  by  carrying  water  on 
camels  or  asses.  In  Koseir  for  every  camel-load  of  water, 
which  consists  of  six  goatskins,  and  which,  as  already  men- 
tioned, occupies  them  three  days,  they  receive,  according  to 
the  market  price,  which  varies  with  circumstances,  from 
Is.  6d.  to  6s. 

The  people  dwelling  on  the  Nile  are  now  more  frequently 
employed  than  the  Ababdeh  as  camel-drivers  in  large  cara- 
vans, but  according  to  the  accounts  of  travellers  the  Ababdeh 
seem  formerly  to  have  mainly  conducted  the  traffic.  Some 
live  close  to  the  caravan  route,  and  besides  keeping  stock, 
earn  something  from  the  services  of  various  kinds  which  they 
render  to  caravans  passing  by  or  camping  near,  fetching 
water,  branches,  and  wood,  watering  the  camels,  loading  and 
unloading,  &;c.  For  these  services  they  receive  from  the 
camel-drivers  a  few  handfuls  of  corn  or  durra.  They  are 
also  placed  here  as  road- watchers,  and  are  said  to  receive 
payment  for  this  duty  from  their  chief,  but  they  do  not  appear 
to  get  much.  If  there  is  a  cessation  of  the  traffic  (which 
consists  on  their  roads  chiefly  in  the  export  of  corn  from 
Egypt),  even  the  road-guards  break  up  their  huts  and  remove 
somewhere  else.  A  few  Ababdeh  are  attached  as  dromedary 
riders  to  the  stations  of  the  carpenters  who  have  to  keep  the 
desert-telegraphs  in  repair.  For  these  carpenters  the  govern- 
ment has  already  erected  stone-dwellings  of  a  somewhat  more 
solid  character.  Lastly,  many  live  as  camel-drivers  in  the 
service  of  others  as  masters,  or  they  accompany  through  the 
desert  herds  of  cattle  bought  up  by  merchants,  or  are  fisher- 
men and  shell-gatherers  by  profession.  A  considerable  num- 
ber, as  already  mentioned,  have  settled  in  the  Nile  valley 
•and  practise  agriculture.     There  also  they  prefer  to  stick  to 


262  UPPER   EGYPT. 

each  other,  building  villages  for  themselves,  and  not  mixing 
readily  with  the  Fellahin. 

Their  trade  with  the  settled  country  is  carried  on  by 
money,  but  among  themselves  more  by  barter;  the  women 
in  the  interior  accordingly  scarcely  know  the  value  of  money, 
and  when  one  wishes  anything  from  them,  such  as  wood  or 
milk,  they  do  not  give  it  though  offered  a  great  deal  of 
money,  but  readily  give  it  for  a  piece  of  bread,  some  corn,  or 
a  piece  of  cloth. 

INTELLECTUAL   QUALITIES  AND   CAPACITIES. 

As  the  Ababdeh,  looking  at  their  bodily  characteristics, 
are  a  well-built  race  but  bear  the  stamp  of  hunger,  so  also 
from  the  mental  point  of  view  they  are,  like  most  races  living 
in  a  state  of  nature,  very  intelligent  within  the  circle  of  their 
wants  and  conceptions,  but  at  the  same  time  ''poor  spirited" 
(faJcir),  as  the  Egyptian  expresses  himself,  that  is,  in  the  good 
sense  of  the  word,  not  stupid,  but  well  disposed  and  harmless. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  older  travellers  (Burkhard, 
Bruce)  they  were  formerly  the  opposite,  being  represented  as 
"dishonourable,  faithless,  vicious.''  Either  they  were  con- 
founded with  the  Bisharin,  to  whom  these  three  words  apply 
only  too  well,  or  it  is  only  since  that  time  that  their  character 
has  been  so  much  improved.  More  recent  travellers  cannot 
sufficiently  praise  them  as  peaceable,  honourable  people, 
rather  too  shy  and  timid.  Considering  their  poverty  they 
are  not  to  be  blamed  if  they  eagerly  lay  hold  of  a  gift  offered 
them,  but  they  do  not  beg.  Their  country  is  as  yet  too  little 
traversed  and  corrupted  by  Europeans,  who  accustom  the 
natives  to  beggary,  as  the  Fellahin  are  accustomed  to  back- 
shish. That  they  do  not,  like  other  Bedouins,  practise  hos- 
pitality towards  strangers  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  since 
they  have  scarcely  the  barest  necessaries  of  life  for  themselves. 
If  misfortune  has  thrown  in  their  way  a  person  who  has  lost 
himself  or  been  shipwrecked,  and  wlio  in  want  of  food  and 
assistance  has  been  forced  to  have  recourse  to  them,  they  do 
not  certainly  rob  or  murder  him,  but  they  give  him  nothing 


LANGUAGE.  268 

to  eat  unless  he  has  money  in  his  pocket  or  can  give  certain 
promise  of  payment.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  a  man  of 
rank  belonging  to  their  tribe  comes  to  them,  pride  and  honour 
demand  that  a  member  of  their  herd  shall  be  offered  up  to 
show  their  regard  for  him;  nay,  if  the  guest  comes  exactly  at 
the  time  when  a  sheep  has  been  killed  for  the  family,  yet  a 
second  must  fall  for  him — the  guest. 

The  Abadi  has  a  most  accurate  knowledge  of  his  country 
and  its  products;  he  knows  every  little  plant  and  every 
animal  by  name,  and  all  the  paths  for  a  wide  circuit  round; 
and  their  skill  in  following  a  trail  is  celebrated  and  is  really 
extraordinary.  In  the  arid  desert,  where  there  is  no  drift 
sand,  the  trail  remains  impressed  for  a  long  time  on  the 
ground.  An  animal  that  has  run  off,  a  man  that  has  fled  or 
lost  his  way,  is  sure  to  be  brought  back  by  the  Ababdeh  in  a 
short  time;  wild  beasts  are  pursued  up  to  their  holes;  even 
in  inhabited  cities  they  can  point  out  the  trail.  A  few 
Ababdeh  specially  skilled  in  this  art  are  even  kept  in  the 
pay  of  the  government  in  order,  in  case  of  a  crime,  to  track 
out  the  perpetrators,  and  the  results  are  often  wonderful. 
The  people  even  relate  that  the  parties  really  guilty  have 
been  found  by  a  comparison  of  the  footsteps  of  a  large  number 
of  accused  persons. 

Arts  and  manufactures  there  are  naturally  none  among 
these  Bedouins,  except  that  rude  utensils  are  made,  and  ves- 
sels carved  out  of  soap-stone,  serpentine,  and  wood. 

'Sickness  is  left  to  the  healing  power  of  nature,  or  treated 
with  herbs  growing  in  the  desert.  Of  small-pox  these 
Bedouins  have  such  a  horror  that  they  pitilessly  expose  per- 
sons affected  with  this  disease,  and  only  throw  to  them  every 
day  the  necessary  food  and  drink  until  they  die  or  recover. 

LANGUAGE. 

The  language  of  the  Ababdeh,  strange  to  say,  is  the  Arabic. 
When  they  speak  with  strangers  they  always — even  the 
children — express  themselves  very  well  in  Arabic.  Among 
themselves,  however,  they  speak  a  jargon  almost  unintelli- 


264  UPPER  EGYPT. 

gible  to  strangers.  Many  words  and  expressions  in  it  are 
decidedly  Arabic,  although  twisted  about  so  as  to  be  unre- 
cognizable; others,  however,  as  well  as  many  names  of  places, 
seem  to  belong  to  a  language  of  their  own,  which  may  be  a 
branch  of  the  Bedya  tongue  spoken  b}?-  the  Bisharin,  so  closely 
allied  to  them.  Strangely  enough  they  make  their  language 
a  matter  of  secrecy;  the  Abadi  cannot  be  brought  to  speak 
of  it.  The  singing  or  interrogatory  tone,  which  the  Ababdeh 
always  employ  when  speaking,  is  peculiar.  It  is  also  reported 
that  the  Ababdeh  sheiks  have  a  kind  of  secret  language, 
which,  how^ever,  is  a  modern  invention;  it  is  said  to  be  formed 
by  the  insertion  of  the  consonants  k  and  r  into  words  already 
in  use;  for  example,  they  turn  the  Arabic  yom,  day,  into  ar- 
kelyerho'in,  gebely  mountain,  into  gerkeherkel,  just  as  when 
boys  we  made  a  kind  of  artificial  language  for  ourselves  by 
inserting  rf  between  syllables,  as  gorafold  for  gold,  &c. 

RELIGION. 

The  religion  of  the  Ababdeh  is  the  Mohammedan,  but  little 
more  than  nominally  so,  its  rules  being  very  loosely  observed. 
These  dwellers  in  the  desert,  indeed,  never  perform  the  first 
duty  of.  the  Moslim,  the  well-known  prayer  in  a  bending 
attitude.  Even  those  living  among  other  Mohammedans 
seldom  go  to  the  mosque.  A  pilgrimage  by  an  Abadi  is  almost 
unheard  of  As  already  mentioned  he  eats  without  religious 
scruples  very  unclean  meats,  such  as  foxes,  mice,  and  hyenas, 
])ut  only  if  they  have  been  duly  slaughtered  beforehand. 
For  him  to  fast  at  Ramadan,  as  will  be  understood  from  what 
we  have  said  above,  is  a  thing  impossible.  If  an  Abadi  is 
asked  whether  he  is  a  Mohammedan,  he  often  answers,  "No; 
I  am  an  Abadi,"  of  course  meaning  this  more  in  a  national 
sense,  and  in  contradistinction  to  Arabs  and  Fellahin.  Some 
make  themselves  known  in  confidential  conversation  as  free- 
thinkers, and  hold  that  at  death  everything  is  over;  but  they 
openly  reckon  themselves  among  the  believers  of  the  Prophet. 
Their  chiefs,  who  always  live  among  the  Moslimin,  are  gene- 
rally even  bigoted  adherents  of  the  Prophet.    They  have  also 


FAMILY  LIFE.  265 

adopted  many  usages  from  the  Moslimin,  and  accordingly 
there  are  saints,  whose  tombs  are  distinguished  with  pen- 
nants, and  they  practise  circumcision,  divorce,  earlj^  marriage, 
and  polygamy  like  other  Moslimin.  Some  even  rig  them- 
selves out  with  a  rosary,  which,  however,  serves  rather  for 
a  tooth-pick  than  for  counting  off  their  prayers.  For  it  must 
be  mentioned  that  to  the  rosary  is  attached  a  piece  of  wood 
from  a  branch  of  a  tree  growing  in  the  mountains  (Salvadora 
persica),  which  is  highly  thought  of  as  furnishing  excellent 
tooth- cleaners.  An  implement  of  this  kind  (misvak)  is  well 
known  to  have  been  among  the  objects  left  by  the  Prophet, 
and  this  explains  its  position  on  the  rosary.  While  the 
orthodox  Moslim  is  always  superstitious  this  is  not  the  case 
with  the  Abadi,  at  least  he  does  not  believe  in  spirits,  and 
makes  game  of  the  camel-drivers  of  the  Nile  valley,  who  do 
not  venture  to  encamp  by  night  in  a  desert  valley  which  is 
reputed  "uncanny."  The  Abadi  fearlessly  wanders  quite 
alone  both  by  day  and  by  night  in  tracks  where  there  are 
no  men,  but  a  Moslim  would  not  venture  to  do  so.  For  this 
reason  the  Moslimin  accuse  the  Ababdeh  of  practising  the 
black  art;  they  are  said  to  be  able  when  at  a  distance  to  bring 
moving  objects  to  a  stand-still,  their  glance  is  said  to  be  very 
dangerous,  fee,  but  this  the  Ababdeh  themselves  will  by  no 
means  allow. 

FAMILY  LIFE. 

The  family  life  is  not  essentially  different  from  that  of  the 
Moslimin,  since,  as  already  mentioned,  they  have  the  same 
laws  and  usages,  including  early  marriage,  divorce,  and  poly- 
gamy. The  last,  on  account  of  its  expensiveness,  is  seldom 
practised  except  by  the  sheiks.  The  violation  of  the  mar- 
riage vows,  so  rare  among  the  Bedouins,  sometimes  occurs; 
the  Troglodytes  who  love  in  secret  meet  each  other  in  the 
stillness  of  night,  in  lonely  mountain  gorges  and  caves  miles 
away  from  any  human  dwelling.  This,  however,  is  a  risk  to 
run  all  the  greater  that  the  injured  party  is  sure,  by  means 
of  his  skill  in  tracking,  to  discover  the  betrayer.     On  the 


266  UPPER  EGYPT. 

caravan  route  and  on  the  outskirts  of  the  larger  villages  there 
are  even  a  few  Ababdeh  prostitutes. 

When  a  woman  has  been  married  she  must  never  see  her 
own  mother  afterwards.  The  young  husband  always  removes 
far  away  from  the  parental  family  of  his  bride,  chiefly  in 
order  to  avoid  his  Tnother-in-law.  This  fear  of  a  mother- 
in-law  is  spread  among  many  peoples;  it  may  be  traced 
throughout  the  whole  of  Africa,  America,  and  Australia,  and 
perhaps  naturally  arises  from  the  relationship  itself,  being  ex- 
pressed also  in  our  proverb,  ''Mother-in-law — tiger-mother," 
or  "Devil's  lining."^  Among  the  Ababdeh,  too,  the  brothers 
and  nearest  relatives  of  the  wife  must  not  eat  with  her  after 
the  marriage. 

WEDDING   FESTIVITIES. 

When  a  young  Abadi  is  about  to  marry,  which  he  is 
always  allowed  to  do  whenever  the  first  down  appears  on 
his  cheeks,  for  a  week  before  the  marriage,  at  least  in  the 
larger  settlements,  preliminary  festivities  are  carried  on  every 
night,  without  the  Koran,  but  with  drums,  singing,  and 
hand- clapping.  Here  the  Ababdeh  execute  their  weapon 
dance  in  full  equipment,  that  is,  naked  and  armed  with 
shield,  lance,  and  sword.  A  dancer  or  two  warriors  step 
into  the  circle,  swing  their  spears,  and  make  a  number  of 
leaps  and  bounds;  the  dance  is  much  more  violent  than  the 
similar  dance  of  the  Egyptians,  with  its  studied  grace.  The 
dancer  often  rushes  at  a  spectator,  and  giving  a  loud  shout 
makes  a  thrust  at  his  breast  with  his  lance  or  sword,  to 
which  the  latter  gives  for  answer,  "Abadi."  The  former 
then  retires.  According  to  the  statements  of  travellers, 
others  sing  a  national  song,  in  which  they  praise  the  bold 
and  celebrate  the  Ababdeh  race,  while  joy,  fear,  suffering,  or 
anger  is  depicted  in  the  features  of  the  spectator.  Others, 
using  a  double- toned  reed  flute,  play  for  hours  on  end  tunes 
impossible  to  imitate;  or  the  dance  of  veiled  women,  already 

^  Schwiegermutter — Tigermutter  oder  Teufehunterfutter, 


FUNERALS. 


267 


described  (Chap.  ill.  p.  193),  is  executed,  the  whole  being 
done  in  the  darkness  of  night,  only  very  partially  dispelled 
by  an  open  fire,  at  which  the  drums  are  oc- 
casionally dried  when  they  become  wet  with 
the  dew.  Round  the  fire  sit  the  sedater  men 
and  smoke  their  serpentine  pipes,  which  have 
the  form  of  a  short  tube  bent  at  a  right 
angle  and  without  a  wooden  stem,  or  are  of 
the  usual  form  of  a  pipe,  with  a  heavy  mas- 
sive bowl  of  serpentine. 

FUNERALS. 

When  the  last  hour  of  an  Abadi  has  struck 
loud  lamentations  resound  throuMi  the 
mountains;  tlie  body  is  buried  with  usages 
similar  to  those  practised  by  the  Moslimin,  ^^.i^^eh  Tobacco  pipes. 
and  over  the  grave  stones  are  heaped  up, 
some  of  the  higher  of  them  pointing  towards  Meccah.  The 
ancient  Troglodytes  are  said  to  have  thrown  stones  at  their 
corpses,  laughing  and  rejoicing  all  the  while,  till  they  were 
covered  from  view,  and  then  to  have  set  a  goat's  horn  on 
the  top. 


CHAPTEK    Y. 

ON    THE    BED    SEA. 

THE  RED   SEA. 

The  waters  of  the  sea  are  murmuring  against  the  sandy- 
shore  of  the  wide  bay  that  penetrates  westwards;  towards 
the  south-west  the  foremost  billows  of  the  open  sea  strike 
with  greater  power,  advancing  in  long  rolling  swells.  At  a 
greater  distance  towards  the  south  the  shore  surf  ceases,  and 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  a  streak  of  foam  separates  the 
deep  dark  sea  from  a  lighter,  shallow  coast  lagoon,  which  is 
almost  dry  at  ebb-tide.  On  the  north  of  the  bay,  which  is 
open  towards  the  east,  another  similar  lagoon  is  seen,  soon 
disappearing  from  sight  behind  the  northern  hills.  A  dull, 
hollow,  thunderous  booming  and  roaring,  in  which  the  listen- 
ing ear  imagines  that  it  can  from  time  to  time  distinguish  a 
singing  and  whispering,  called  by  the  natives  "  the  weeping 
of  the  sea,"  mixed  with  the  howling  of  the  north  wind, 
brings  to  us  from  that  quarter  intelligence  of  the  wild  war  of 
the  waves  against  the  firm  land.  The  bottom  of  the  lagoons 
just  mentioned  is  a  coral  bank  and  the  bay  an  opening  in 
the  same,  a  natural  harbour.  We  are  standing  on  the  west 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea  at  26°  N.  lat.,  in  Koseir,  the  sea-port 
town  of  Upper  Egypt. 

Until  a  recent  period  the  Red  Sea  was  known  to  the 
public  at  large  almost  entirely  through  the  tragical  death  of 
the  Jew-persecuting  Pharaoh,  and  it  is  only  within  the  past 
few  years — since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal — that  it  has 
had  the  honour  of  being  again  in  the  mouths  of  all.  "  But 
why  is  this  sea  called  'red?'"  is  the  question  commonly 
suggested  when  the  sea  is  mentioned.  The  inhabitant  of 
the  desert  finds  an  answer  when  the  sun  rises  in  his  dull- 
gray  morning  robes;  the  reappearance  of  the  rising  day-star 
awakens  on  the  top  of  the  waves  and  ripples  a  millionfold. 


THE  DESERT  SHORE.  269 

glancing  and  glittering,  and  the  rambler  on  the  shore  now 
sees  his  shadow  doubled,  it  being  produced  by  the  sun  him- 
self and  again  by  his  equally  brilliant  image  in  the  sea.  The 
higher  the  sun  rises  the  deeper  becomes  the  blue  of  the 
waters,  changing  from  royal  blue  to  slate  blue,  and  in  places 
where  there  are  underlying  rocks  all  at  once  to  grayish- 
green.  As  the  sun  sinks,  late  in  the  afternoon  and  onwards, 
the  blue  becomes  paler,  rising  to  sky  blue,  and  with  sunset 
loses  itself  in  a  white  or  sometimes  rosy-tinted  surface.  At 
night  it  is  black  like  other  terrestrial  objects,  and  only  the 
stars  seem  to  bathe  in  it.  The  full  moon  throws  a  long 
narrow  silvery  trail  of  light  across  the  waters  to  the  horizon. 
At  night,  when  the  water  is  disturbed  by  a  stick  or  an  oar, 
the  drops,  which  contain  decomposing  animal  substances, 
glitter  like  sparks  of  fire;  or  some  swimming  creature  gleams 
spectrally  in  the  nocturnal  water;  while  a  similar  general 
luminosity  of  the  watery  mass,  the  "sea-light,"  is  here  a  rare 
occurrence. 

The  cause  of  the  name  is  by  some  assigned  to  a  microscopic 
alga  (Trichodesmium  erythrceum,  Ehrenberg),  which  some- 
times communicates  a  blood-red  colour  to  certain  stretches  of 
the  sea;  or  to  red  mountains  on  the  coast;  but  these  are  only 
local  and  limited  occurrences.  The  coast  mountains  are  gener- 
ally white.  The  corals  of  the  reef  are  mostly  brown,  yellowish, 
or  bluish,  the  red  ones  being  less  numerous;  lastly,  among 
the  fishes,  Crustacea,  &c.,  there  are  only  a  few  that  are  red. 
There  is,  therefore,  hardly  anything  that  is  red  connected 
with  the  "Red  Sea,  and  the  name  was  probably  chosen 
capriciously  by  the  ancients,  or  by  way  of  lucus  a  non 
lucendo. 

THE  DESERT  SHORE. 

The  shore  and  country  adjoining  it,  often  for  miles  into  the 
interior,  is  a  howling  wilderness,  with  an  arid  or  saline 
and  friable  soil,  here  and  there  covered  with  white  salt 
flowers,  as  if  with  snow  or  hoar-frost;  the  subsoil  water  is 
brackish  and  bitter,  almost  undrinkable.     There  is  scarcely 


270  UPPER  EGYPT. 

any  vegetation  except  a  few  salt  plants.  It  is  not  till  we 
approach  the  mountains  that  the  soil  of  the  valleys  becomes 
capable  of  sending  up  herbage  after  rain.  A  more  desolate 
strip  of  coast  is  hardly  anywhere  to  be  found  unless  on  the 
shore  of  the  Sahara  or  the  Arctic  Ocean.  "  Oh  wherefore 
then  is  the  water  of  the  ocean  not  fresh!"  with  childish 
peevishness  exclaims  the  wanderer  on  the  boundaries  of  the 
desert  of  land  and  water;  "into  what  luxuriant  fields  might 
not  these  subtropical  shores  be  converted!" 

ANCIENT   SETTLEMENTS  AND  SEA-PORT  TOWNS. 

Here  one  would  think  that  a  human  being  could  no  more 
get  on  than  on  the  waterless  moon.  And  yet  man  is  here; 
to  this  locality  too  has  he  been  brought  by  the  struggle  for 
life.  Round  the  wells  and  springs  in  the  mountains  he  has 
settled  as  a  herdsman,  passing  a  wretched  existence,  and  to 
the  coast  has  he  come  as  an  ichthyophagist,  a  fisherman,  a 
mariner,  a  trader.  Even  the  peoples  of  antiquity  had 
populous  towns  here,  the  entrepot  of  an  active  trade  carried 
on  by  Egypt  with  Arabia  and  India.  In  the  time  of  the 
Ptolemies  there  were,  beginning  at  Suez,  the  ancient  Clysma, 
and  going  south:  1,  Philoteras,  probably  at  the  bottom  of 
the  bay  of  Gimse  and  on  the  Wady  Enned;  2,  Myos 
Hormos,  or  Portus  Magnus,  probably  on  the  bay  of  Abu 
Somer;  3,  Leukos  Limen,  perhaps  the  present  Old  Koseir; 
4,  Nechosia,  at  Eas  Moghek;  5,  Berenice,  the  chief  trading 
town,  at  Eas  Benas.  But  they  flourished  only  for  a  short 
time,  one  town  rising  as  the  other  sank,  partly  because  the 
trade  took  a  new  route  or  ceased  altogether,  partly  because 
the  harbours  became  sanded  up  or  left  by  the  sea  (see 
Chap.  IV.  p.  234),  or  were  reduced  to  small  dimensions  by 
the  ceaseless  operations  of  the  coral  polyps.  The  towns  then 
fell  into  ruins  or  vanished  without  leaving  a  trace.  In  the 
first  centuries  of  Mohammedanism  the  only  point  of  import- 
ance on  the  coast  was  the  port  of  Aidab,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Suakin,  opposite  Jeddah,  where  the  pilgrims  took 
ship  from  Africa  for  Arabia. 


HISTORY   OF  THE   SEA-PORT   OF   KOSEIR.  271 

HISTORY    OF    THE    SEA-PORT    OF    KOSEIR. 

The  Turkish  conqueror  of  Egypt,  Sultan  Selim  III.,  appears 
to  have  been  the  first  who  again  directed  the  route  for  trade 
and  pilgrims  to  the  Egyptian  coast:  at  least  he  built  a  small 
fortress,  the  modern  Koseir,  principally  for  a  protection 
against  the  Bedouins,  erecting  others  of  the  same  kind  also 
on  the  east  coast,  in  Moilah  and  Wudj  for  example.  But  no 
inhabited  town  arose  under  the  protection  of  this  fortress, 
Koseir  being  only  a  periodical  trading- place.  The  road 
through  the  desert  was  so  dangerous,  on  account  of  the  plun- 
dering Bedouins,  that  only  large  caravans  could  venture  to 
pass  through  it.  The  merchants  attached  themselves  to  the 
pilgrim  caravans,  and  crossed  the  sea  with  the  pilgrims  as 
well  in  going  as  in  coming;  the  Arabic  merchants,  chiefly 
belonging  to  Yemba,  at  this  time  transacted  their  business 
in  Koseir,  and  then  returned  home.  There  were  only  a  few 
houses  standing  inhabited  by  people  from  Yemba.  In  this 
condition  the  place  was  found  by  the  French  on  their  conquest 
of  Egypt;  as  a  point  of  strategic  importance  they  kept  it 
garrisoned  during  the  three  years  (1798-1801)  that  they 
possessed  Egypt,  and  cannon  and  mortars  still  remain  orna- 
mented with  the  Jacobin  cap  and  republican  inscriptions  of 
the  year  III. 

Koseir  first  became  a  permanent  settlement  of  importance 
under  Mohammed  Ali,  and  under  the  favour  of  this  pasha 
soon  rose  to  a  flourishing  position.  The  fact  of  its  having  a 
comparatively  good  harbour,  at  least  for  smaller  vessels,  in 
a  situation  that  could  be  reached  from  the  Nile  valley  more 
easily  and  in  a  shorter  time  than  any  other  port,  and  enjoying 
a  climate  celebrated  as  being  temperate  and  healthy,  appeared 
to  justify  the  selection,  notwithstanding  the  want  of  fresh 
water.  The  viceroy  was,  as  he  still  is,  bound  by  treaty  to  pay 
a  portion  of  his  annual  tribute  to  the  Porte  in  the  form  of 
deliveries  of  grain  for  Arabia,  with  which  the  Sultan,  on  his 
part,  had  to  supply  the  Turkish  soldiers  and  officials  there,  the 
chiefs  of  the  Bedouins,  who  would  not  allow  the  caravans  to 
pass  unmolested  through  their  territories  unless  on  this  con- 


272  UPPER  EGYPT. 

dition,  and  the  sheriis  or  descendants  of  the  Prophet.  These 
deliveries,  called  dachire,  consisted  of  about  180,000  ardeb 
annually — wheat,  barley,  beans,  lentils,  and  also  oil,  biscuits, 
and  the  like.  Koseir  was  selected  as  the  place  where  these  were 
to  be  collected.  At  that  time,  when  there  was  no  railway,  Suez 
was  as  difficult  to  reach  from  the  fertile  regions  as  Koseir; 
from  it  a  long  and  dangerous  sea  voyage  had  first  to  be  made 
to  the  Arabian  ports  of  Yemba  and  Jeddah,  and  the  com  of 
Upper  Egypt  was  better  and  cheaper  than  that  of  the  Delta. 
The  distance  by  sea  from  Koseir  was  considerably  shorter, 
and  through  the  energetic  measures  of  the  viceroy,  who 
had  effected  treaties  with  the  Bedouins,  the  desert  route  had 
been  rendered  quite  safe.  The  hope  of  deriving  a  large  profit 
from  the  transport  of  this  grain  as  well  as  from  the  then 
flourishing  private  trade,  and  from  the  passage  annually  of  a 
large  number  of  pilgrims  to  Meccah,  as  well  as  certain  privi- 
leges specially  granted  to  the  place  (freedom  from  military 
service  and  direct  taxation),  soon  attracted  a  multitude  of 
people  both  from  the  neighbouring  valley  of  the  Nile  and 
from  the  Hedjaz,  especially  Yemba,  Thus  in  a  short  time 
(in  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  present  century)  Koseir 
acquired  a  settled  population  of  6000  to  8000  souls.  It 
obtained  the  title  of  bander,  meaning  pretty  much  the  same 
as  ''good  town"  or  ''good  trading-town,"  and  had  a  governor 
of  its  own  {Muhdfiz)  of  the  rank  of  a  bey,  who  was  directly 
dependent  on  the  central  government  at  Cairo,  as  those  of 
other  sea-ports,  Alexandria  for  example,  still  are.  Corre- 
spondence with  the  central  government  was  partly  carried  on 
by  messengers  mounted  on  dromedaries,  who  set  out  at  least 
once  a  week,  and,  taking  the  most  direct  route,  traversed  the 
desert  in  five  days,  partly  by  a  system  of  towers  and  sema- 
phores running  through  the  Nile  valley  to  Cairo.  At  this 
time  there  were  at  Koseir  about  sixty  persons  employed  by 
government,  including,  besides  the  governor,  a  port-captain, 
a  doctor,  two  superintendents  of  police  and  customs,  three  over- 
seers for  the  gi-ain-store  (shuna),  nine  Coptic  clerks,  eighteen 
soldiers,  with  two  corporals,  for  the  fort,  hospital-superin- 
tendent and  male  attendants,  custom-house  officers,  &;c.  Every 


HISTOEY  OF  THE   SEA-PORT   OF  KOSEIR.  273 

montli  these  received  as  pay  sixty-four  purses  (1  purse=500 
piastres  =  about  £5),  the  governor  alone  claiming  sixteen 
purses.  Extensive  public  buildings  arose  for  the  government, 
the  customs,  and  the  grain  depot.  The  citadel  was  repaired  and 
additions  made  to  it,  a  quay  faced  with  stone  and  a  wooden 
mole  projecting  into  the  harbour  were  built.  The  inhabi- 
tants on  their  side  filled  up  a  portion  of  the  beach  and  built 
houses,  mosques,  and  the  bazaar.  The  prosperity  of  the  place 
increased  to  an  unusual  degree;  almost  all  the  trade  between 
Egypt  and  Arabia  went  through  Koseir,  every  year  there 
passed  about  30,000  pilgrims  (12,000  going  to  Meccah,  18,000 
returning),  and  among  them  many  men  of  rank  and  wealth 
from  the  whole  Mohammedan  world.  Numerous  inns  served 
for  the  reception  of  these  pilgrims,  though  the  greater  number 
of  them  encamped  in  the  open  air  or  in  tents;  all  round  the 
town  a  still  larger  town  of  tents  was  pitched.  The  passage 
of  this  multitude  of  people,  who  could  leave  Koseir  only  by 
ship  or  camel,  occupied  nearly  nine  months  of  the  year.  If 
it  is  considered  also  that  every  day  several  hundreds,  nay 
thousands  of  camels  arrived  from  the  Nile  valley,  that  another 
hundred  or  two  brought  water  from  the  mountains  and  were 
quartered  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  also  that  the  Ababdeh 
settlement  outside  the  town  numbered  about  200  persons,  a 
conception  may  be  formed  of  how  busy  a  scene  the  town  and 
environs  must  have  been.  Entertainment  and  atnusement 
were  also  provided  for;  there  were  thirty  coffee-houses,  three 
spirit  shops,  and  more  than  fifty  dancing-girls,  who  inhabited 
a  special  quarter  of  the  town.  At  that  time,  too,  the  over- 
land route  for  the  English  to  India  passed  through  Koseir, 
and  twice  a  month  Anglo-Indian  steamers  entered  the  har- 
bour and  brought  numerous  European  travellers  who,  from 
Koseir  to  Keneh  in  the  Nile  valley,  rode  on  camels,  or,  per- 
haps (especially  the  ladies),  had  themselves  carried  this  dis- 
tance in  palanquins,  a  journey  of  four  or  ^\e  days.  For 
these  steamers  a  coal  depot  was  formed.  An  English,  a 
French,  an  Austrian,  and  a  Persian  consul — all  natives  of  the 
country — looked  after  the  interests  of  the  travellers  belonging 
to  the  country  represented  by  each. 

18 


274  UPPER  EGYPT. 

Hundreds  of  vessels  entered  the  harbour  every  month;  for 
the  transport  of  the  contributions  of  grain,  and  perhaps  also 
for  certain  warlike  purposes,  the  Egyptian  government  itself 
possessed  seven  large  three-masted  vessels  of  European  build, 
of  from  4000  to  7000  ardeb  burden,  with  European  captains 
and  officers,  as  well  as  eleven  one-masted  vessels  of  Arabic 
build;  but  even  these  were  not  sufficient,  and  had  to  be  always 
supplemented  by  many  ships  hired  from  private  persons. 

Under  Abbas  Pasha,  and  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Said,  Koseir  still  continued  to  flourish.  An  English 
company  undertook  to  lay  a  submarine  telegraph  to  India, 
and  in  the  Eed  Sea  it  was  to  run  along  the  west  coast.  At 
Suez,  Koseir,  Suakin,  Massowa,  and  Aden  stations  were  esta- 
blished, with  four  or  five  Europeans  attached  to  each.  After 
steamers  had  become  less  common  at  Koseir,  in  consequence 
of  the  establishment  of  the  overland  route  to  India  by  way  of 
Suez,  they  were  again  often  seen,  being  partly  engaged  in 
the  laying  of  the  cable,  partly  in  bringing  supplies  for  the 
employees,  who  were  allowed  to  want  for  nothing  belonging 
to  English  comfort.  These  well-paid  individuals  also  spent 
their  money  freely  and  brought  no  little  life  into  the  town — 
a  subject  spoken  of  long  after.  While  these  Englishmen  were 
staying  at  Koseir,  the  massacre  of  the  Christians  at  Jeddah 
took  place  in  1858.  A  war-steamer  sent  by  the  English 
government  for  the  purposes  of  observation  and  giving  secu- 
rity to  its  subjects  created  a  panic;  but  in  peaceful  Koseir 
there  was  nothing  to  avenge.  The  telegraph  soon  began  to 
cease  to  work;  when  a  thorough  inspection  of  it  was  made, 
the  cable  was  found  to  be  damaged  throughout;  the  coral 
rocks  had  chafed  it;  and  after  scarcely  two  years  the  tele- 
graph was  entirely  given  up. 

The  severest  blow,  however,  and  one  from  which  it  has 
not  yet  recovered,  was  received  by  Koseir  in  the  same  year  (?) 
— the  railway  between  Cairo  and  Suez  was  completed.  By 
this  means  the  traffic,  including  the  pilgrims,  was  almost 
entirely  removed  to  Suez,  for  which  Said  Pasha  had  as  great 
a  favour  as  Mohammed  Pasha  had  had  for  Koseir;  aU  kinds 
of  advantages  were  granted  to  it,  the  Meccah  pilgrims  must 


HISTORY   OF   THE   SEA-POET   OF   KOSEIR.  275 

go  by  way  of  Suez  to  make  the  line  pay,  and  the  dacMre 
were  managed  at  Suez.  It  thus  happened  that  Koseir  was 
deserted  by  the  greater  number  of  its  inhabitants  almost  at 
once,  and  it  sunk  more  quickly  than  it  had  risen. 

Koseir  only  retained  the  grain  trade  with  the  Hedjaz, 
which,  however,  was  of  some  importance,  and  suiScient  to 
prolong  the  life  of  the  town.  The  profit  from  the  pilgrims 
became  rather  negative  than  positive,  as  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  persons  from  Upper  Egypt  it  was  generally  none  but 
begging  pilgrims  that  took  this  route,  over  the  whole  of 
which  they  could  beg.  The  number  of  the  government 
employees  was  greatly  diminished,  that  of  the  inhabitants 
sank  to  1500,  whole  streets  were  deserted  and  fell  into  ruins. 
But  still  more  blows  fell.  The  year  1864  was  a  year  of 
scarcit}^  and  in  order  in  some  degree  to  lessen  this  the  export 
of  grain  was  strictly  prohibited  by  an  edict  of  Ismail  Pasha. 
For  the  town  this  was  a  mortal  injury.  The  prohibition  was 
so  sudden  and  unexpected  that  a  large  quantity  of  grain  had 
been  already  stored  up.  A  deputation  of  merchants  to  the 
government  received  the  answer  that  of  the  11,000  ardeb  of 
grain  found  to  be  in  the  town  (in  any  case,  therefore,  a  con- 
siderable quantity)  8000  might  be  exported,  as  the  corn  could 
not  be  taken  back  again  to  the  Nile  valley;  8000  were  to 
remain  in  the  place  in  order  to  support  the  inhabitants  for 
six  months. 

After  the  year  of  scarcity  the  trade  again  went  on,  but  no 
longer  as  formerly.  The  prices  of  grain,  like  the  prices  in 
Egypt  generally,  were  no  longer  so  low  as  formerly,  and  the 
cost  of  transport  and  customs  dues  made  them  still  higher 
for  the  opposite  coast. 

Hitherto  Father  Nile  had  almost  exclusively  supplied  arid 
Arabia  with  corn;  but  now  also  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
even  the  Indus  and  Volga,  began  a  dangerous  rivalry.  By 
the  steamers,  which,  since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
traverse  the  Bed  Sea  in  great  and  increasing  numbers,  grain 
can  now  be  brought  to  the  Arabian  sea-ports  from  the  distant 
but  cheap  countries  on  the  above-named  fertile  streams  at  a 
lower  rate  than  is  possible  for  the  Egyptians.     Occasionally, 


276  UPPER  EGYPT. 

in  years  of  extraordinary  abundance,  or  when  high  prices  rule 
in  these  countries,  a  short  time  of  improvement  is  again 
induced,  but  after  those  injuries  formerly  received  mainly  at 
the  hands  of  the  government,  the  town  is  now  in  the  condi- 
tion of  a  sick  person  wasting  awiiy  through  some  internal 
complaint;  it  can  neither  live  nor  die,  but  every  year  becomes 
worse  and  weaker,  and  will  hardly  as  such  last  more  than 
half  a  score  years.  The  government  has,  to  be  sure,  given  it 
a  strengthening  medicine  by  causing  the  dachire  to  be  again 
exported  from  Koseir,  after  finding  that  the  Suez  route  was 
too  expensive;  but  the  contribution  now  amounts  to  only 
24,000  ardeb,  far  from  sufficient  to  bring  about  any  improve- 
ment. The  remaining  trade,  exclusive  of  the  grain  trade,  is 
also  too  insignificant  to  keep  up  the  town;  and  while  the 
sources  of  income  are  drying  up,  taxes  are  enormously  in- 
creasing; provisions,  being  generally  brought  from  a  distance, 
are  usually  higher  than  in  the  Nile  valley,  to  which  must  be 
added  the  cost  of  water,  amounting  for  a  considerable  house- 
hold to  from  Is.  Qd.  to  6s.  a  day.  At  present,  therefore,  every- 
body is  now  leaving  his  native  town,  formerly  so  dear,  and 
the  population  can  now  scarcely  amoiant  to  more  than  800. 

The  history  of  the  town  of  Koseir,  as  we  received  it  from 
the  mouths  of  natives,  we  have  given  in  some  detail,  partly 
because  it  is  not  uninteresting  in  itself,  partly  because  it 
shows  what  an  ephemeral  existence  the  waterless  sea-ports  on 
the  Red  Sea  have  and  always  had. 

Even  Suez  is  not  secure  against  a  blow  to  its  prosperity, 
in  spite  of  its  canal.  Some  time  ago  the  project  was  brought 
forward  of  bringing  the  traffic,  which  merely  passes  Egypt 
through  the  canal,  and  brings  nothing  to  the  country,  more 
into  the  country  itself,  and  on  the  Egyptian  west  coast  of  the 
Red  Sea  a  good  harbour  which  could  be  easily  provided  with 
fresh  water  was  sought  for.  The  harbour  was  then  to  be  con- 
nected by  a  railway  with  another  railway  to  be  constructed 
in  the  Nile  valley,  and  it  was  hoped  that  at  least  a  portion 
of  the  trade  with  India  would  be  attracted  to  this  quicker 
route,  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  route  to  Egypt  via  Brin- 
disi  is  often  preferred  to  that  via  Marseilles  or  Trieste.     All 


mMmim,ii/Miii,i& « 


POPULATION.  277 

these  advantages,  it  was  believed,  were  to  be  found  in  the 
good  harbour  of  the  anciently  celebrated  town  of  Berenice, 
but  the  project  was  quite  given  up. 

Perhaps  recourse  may  once  more  be  had  to  the  unfortunate 
town  of  Koseir,  which,  though  it  neither  has  a  good  harbour 
nor  yet  fresh  water,  possesses  the  advantage  of  being  near 
the  Nile  valley,  and  of  being  connected  with  this  by  a  road 
along  which  a  railway  might  easily  be  constructed.  A  good 
harbour  would  be  found  at  Shurum,  18  or  19  miles  farther 
south,  and  the  want  of  water  might  be  remedied  by  cisterns. 
If  a  more  active  race  than  the  indolent  unenterprising  native 
Moslimin  inhabited  these  regions,  town  after  town  might  now 
perhaps  rise  even  on  these  barren  shores,  as  in  the  time  of  the 
Greeks,  and  in  the  adjacent  desert  garden  after  garden  might 
perhaps  be  made  by  the  digging  of  wells.  The  town  of 
Koseir  has  at  present  produced  at  least  one  garden,  though, 
certainly,  this  cannot  be  called  luxuriant. 

THE  TOWN. 

The  picture  of  our  sea-port  town  essentially  resembles  that 
which  we  have  already  drawn  of  a  provincial  town  of  Upper 
Egypt  (see  Chap.  I.),  but  many  Arabic  elements  from  the 
Hedjaz  also  present  themselves.  Here  also  the  houses  are 
generally  of  one  story  and  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  and 
they  stand  in  straight  rows,  the  streets  being  remarkably 
clean.  A  few  handsome  government  buildings  of  stone,  some 
mosques  and  sheik-cupolas,  rise  above  the  other  houses,  and 
the  whole  is  commanded  by  a  citadel  occupying  a  consider- 
able area,  but  of  no  use  for  modern  warfare.  On  Sundays 
and  feast-days  many  flags  are  hoisted.  In  the  foreground 
lies  the  bay  with  the  shipping,  in  the  back-ground  rise  pic- 
turesquely the  mountains  of  the  desert. 

POPULATION. 

The  population,  as  in  other  sea-ports,  is  remarkable  for  the 
diversity  of  races  it  exhibits,  while  here  also  there  is  a  still 


278  UPPER  EGYPT. 

more  striking  diversity  of  colours.  The  chief  body  consists 
of  the  free  proud  offspring  of  sacred  Arabia,  who  for  the 
sake  of  gain  have  bowed  themselves  under  the  rigorous 
sceptre  of  Egypt,  and  have  accustomed  themselves  to  behave 
like  the  submissive  slaves  of  the  land  of  the  Pharaohs.  These 
''Yembauiyeh,"  or  Bedouins,  as  they  like  to  be  called,  still 
continue  to  look  proudly  down  upon  the  Fellahin.  They 
love  to  clothe  themselves  in  bright  and  gay-coloured  attire 
instead  of  the  blue  blouse  of  the  Fellah;  round  their  heads 
they  wind  a  bright-coloured  cloth  which  hangs  down  over 
their  shoulders  behind ;  their  naked  feet  carry  thick  sandals. 
These  Yembauiyeh  are  generally  connected  with  the  shipping, 
especially  as  owners,  captains,  and  sailors.  The  Egyptians 
are  more  important  numerically;  they  are  the  petty  traders, 
artisans,  and  porters,  though  many  are  also  excellent  sailors, 
or  have  become  merchants  and  ship-owners.  The  greater 
number  have  come  from  Upper  Egypt,  only  the  younger 
having  been  born  in  the  place.  There  are  also  a  number  of 
Copts  among  them.  Of  genuine  Turks  there  are  only  the 
governor  and  a  few  officials;  the  half-dozen  soldiers  in  garri- 
son are  of  Turkish  descent,  but  have  been  born  in  the  place 
and  are  quite  Arabified. 

The  negro  slaves  form  an  essential  constituent  in  the  popu- 
lation, acting  mostly  as  sailors.  To  these  are  to  be  added — 
besides  the  deep-brown  Upper  Egyptians — the  almost  black 
Ababdeh,  so  that  the  prevailing  shade  of  colour  among  the 
people  of  this  place  is  very  dusky.  In  keeping  with  the 
etiquette  of  the  neighbouring  holy  land,  the  women  here  are 
more  strict  than  elsewhere  in  closely  veiling  themselves. 
When  ladies  of  position  arrive  by  sea  they  are  not  put  ashore 
until  late  at  night,  and  also  when  they  come  from  the  desert 
they  choose  the  night  for  their  arrival  if  possible.  Men  whose 
business  takes  them  to  both  shores  of  the  sea  alternately  like 
to  keep  a  legitimate  wife  on  each  side. 

THE  MARKETS. 

In  the  town  we  have  a  bazaar  in  which  the  retail  dealers, 
in  their  primitive  booths,  sell  the  products  of  three  quarters 


THE  MARKETS.  279 

of  the  globe,  and  of  the  Red  Sea  to  boot,  such  as  coffee,  frank- 
incense, pepper,  ginger,  rice,  tobacco  for  the  hookah,  crushed 
dates  in  skins,  cocoa-nuts,  fancy  wooden  boxes,  and  textile 
fabrics  from  the  East;  oil,  sugar,  rice,  dried  dates,  tobacco, 
pipe- bowls,  camel  travelling-bags,  shoes,  wooden  utensils,  and 
fruits  from  the  Nile  valley;  textile  fabrics,  cigar-paper, 
lucifer-matches,  tapers,  tin,  metal  plates,  and  porcelain  dishes 
from  Europe;  plaited-leather  thongs,  leather  pouches,  confec- 
tionery, bread  and  biscuit  as  industrial  products  of  the  town 
itself;  and,  lastly,  dried  fish,  dried  molluscs,  the  opercula  of 
molluscs,  cuttle-fish  bones,  porcelain  shells  (Cyprsea),  shells  of 
the  pearl-mussel,  and  other  shells  from  the  sea.  Here  too 
the  broker  runs  up  and  down  the  market  with  all  kinds  of 
auction- wares :  clothing,  amber  mouth-pieces  for  pipes,  car- 
pets, chairs,  goats,  sheep,  asses,  and  camels.  Large  objects  for 
auction,  such  as  boxes,  trunks,  and  other  furniture,  are  exposed 
in  different  parts  of  the  market-place,  and  if  they  cannot  be 
sold  they  remain  all  night  under  the  charge  of  the  night- 
watchmen  that  sleep  there.  In  the  fish-market  the  strange 
forms  and  brilliant  colouring  of  the  Red  Sea  fish  are  exhibited 
as  they  hang  in  bunches  by  means  of  a  cord  of  alfa  grass 
drawn  through  their  gill-openings;  the  large  ones  lie  on  straw- 
mats  waiting  till  they  are  cut  up  with  the  hatchet  and  sold 
in  pieces,  while  the  parts  that  are  not  eaten,  such  as  the 
entrails,  gills,  and  ovaries,  are  flung  to  the  cats,  multitudes 
of  which  always  collect  here.  In  the  fruit-market  the  parched 
inhabitants  struggle  for  the  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables  which 
the  camel-drivers  bring  from  the  Nile  valley,  and  are  pre- 
vented from  plundering  only  by  the  switch  of  a  police-soldier. 
The  cargo  is  generally  sold  to  the  retail  dealer  that  offers 
most,  after  the  doctor,  who  has  been  summoned  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  his  agents,  as  overseers  of  the  markets,  have  passed 
the  goods  as  not  being  injurious  to  health,  this  being  soon 
managed  if  a  few  first-fruits  are  presented  for  their  families, 
either  gratis  or  at  a  low  price.  Any  objections  on  the  part 
of  the  police  or  the  "sheik  of  the  vegetables"  are  also  removed 
in  this  manner.  Many  citizens,  however,  in  their  longing 
for  green  food,  set  out  very  early  and  go  a  long  distance  to 


280  UPPER  EGYPT. 

meet  the  expected  camels,  getting  their  wants  supplied  on 
the  spot.  In  the  cattle-market  are  exhibited  various  varieties 
of  sheep  descended  from  the  fat- tailed  breed;  the  brown- 
wooled  shaggy-headed  Nile  sheep,  the  lean  sheep  of  the 
Ababdeh,  and  the  long-legged,  smooth-haired  Arab  sheep, 
transported  from  Arabia  by  sea,  besides  the  goats  of  these 
regions,  all  of  them  with  large  ears.  A  portion  of  them  are 
immediatel}'-  slaughtered  on  the  beach,  which  is  employed 
as  a  slaughter-house,  by  a  transverse  cut  across  the  throat,  in 
the  name  of  God  the  all-merciful,  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
Koran,  sea  water  being  plentifully  poured  over  them;  others 
are  previously  kept  and  fed  in  the  yards  of  the  corn-dealers, 
in  order  to  give  milk  and  produce  progeny.  The  latter  object 
is  promoted  by  the  public  he-goat,  who  has  the  market-place 
allotted  to  him  as  his  home;  here  he  remains  day  and  night 
in  the  midst  of  the  numerous  consorts  provided  for  him,  and 
forms  an  essential  feature  in  the  scene.  From  the  sellers  of 
the  high-priced  drinking  water,  who  set  their  commodity 
before  them  in  casks,  compassionate  souls  buy  for  him  the 
delicious  refreshment;  but  his  food  he  procures  for  himself, 
penetrating  into  the  court-yards  of  the  corn-dealers,  plunder- 
ing the  baskets"  of  the  children  that  sell  bread,  or  biting 
unnoticed  a  hole  in  a  skin  containing  dates.  He  even  contrives 
to  find  entrance  into  the  government  grain  warehouse  by 
means  of  his  commanding  walk  and  stately  horns.  The  wood- 
market  is  provided  by  the  Ababdeh  with  the  excellent  wood 
of  the  acacia  and  other  trees  of  the  desert,  as  well  as  with 
wood  charcoal,  and  by  ships  with  the  same  articles  from  the 
opposite  shore,  or  with  shora-wood.  A  very  cheap  fuel,  and 
one  in  general  use,  is  also  brought  hither  by  the  Bedouins, 
viz.,  balls  of  camels'  dung  in  sacks,  collected  on  the  caravan 
roads;  they  also  occasionally  bring  all  kinds  of  desert  plants 
as  fodder  for  cattle.  At  other  times  the  cattle  kept  in  the 
town  receive  the  bran  arising  from  the  grinding  of  grain, 
barley,  among  the  grain-dealers  also  wheat,  and  always  beans, 
without  which  they  do  not  thrive;  the  latter  take  the  place 
that  oats  occupy  in  other  regions. 


THE   WATER.  281 


THE    WATEE. 


The  peculiarity  of  our  desert  town  is  the  water  market. 
Every  morning  arrives  a  stately  water  caravan  with  a  supply 
for  the  wants  of  the  citizen  from  the  springs  and  wells  of  the 
desert.  The  better  springs  are  from  8  to  10  leagues  distant. 
Each  camel  carries  six  tanned  goatskins,  which  are  always 
rubbed  with  oil  after  being  used  in  order  to  keep  them  from 
cracking  with  the  heat  of  the  sun  on  the  up  journey.  This 
gives  to  the  newly  brought  water  that  disagreeable  flavour 
which  has  made  the  water  of  Koseir  famous,  and  causes  it  to 
appear  undrinkable  to  the  new  comer;  we  must  also  mention 
the  impurities  and  insect  larvae  that  are  always  found  in  the 
basins  of  springs,  and  when  the  water  is  carelessly  filled 
enter  along  with  it  into  the  skins.  For  this  reason  the  water 
becomes  putrid  in  a  few  days  and  still  more  undrinkable. 
All  attempts  at  purifying  it,  even  filtering  and  throwing  in 
live  coals,  are  of  no  avail,  though,  perhaps,  allowing  it  to 
stand  for  several  weeks  in  large  reservoirs  would  have  this 
eflfect.  The  water  is  brought  partly  by  Bedouins,  partly  by 
inhabitants  of  the  town  itself,  who  make  that  their  special 
trade.  They  require  at  least  two  nights  and  one  day,  the 
Bedouins  three  days.  Some  of  the  townspeople  who  have  a 
large  household  keep  special  camels  for  carrying  the  water. 
The  water  being  dear,  a  full  goat-skin,  which  is  by  no  means 
large,  always  costs  from  half  a  franc  to  2  francs ;  it  is  dearer 
than  usual  at  the  pasture  season,  when  the  camels  are  sent 
into  the  Nile  valley  and  only  those  of  the  Bedouins  remain, 
and  also  at  the  time  when  many  pilgrims  are  in  the  town. 
Government  oflicials  get  their  water  paid  for  or  delivered  by 
the  government;  several  water  camels  are  at  the  orders  of 
the  governor.  The  poorer  people  provide  themselves  with 
water  from  less  remote  springs,  but  these  are  all  saline,  bitter, 
and  hard.  The  domestic  animals  are  watered  with  water 
from  springs  in  the  closest  proximity  to  the  town;  this  water 
is  still  worse,  and  is  just  drinkable  for  human  beings  only 
for  a  few  months  after  a  fall  of  rain.  The  soil  is  then  turned 
up  to  the  depth  of  a  few  feet,  and  the  water  collecting  in  the 


282  UPPER  EGYPT. 

trenches  is  carried  by  women  and  girls  into  the  houses 
in  clay  pitchers  with  handles,  as  on  the  Nile.  The  joyful 
excitement  among  the  townspeople  after  a  plentiful  fall  of 
rain  that  produces  a  river  has  already  been  described  in 
Chap.  IV.  p.  231.  There  has  been  much  talk  for  years  about 
the  construction  of  a  cistern;  everybody  considers  the  scheme 
decidedly  necessary  and  even  profitable,  but  from  the  utter 
want  of  enterprise  nobody  will  contribute  the  money  for  it. 
A  good  cistern,  which  would  have  to  be  well  cemented  and 
plastered  in  order  to  keep  the  water  sweet,  would,  in  any 
case,  cost  a  large  sum  of  money;  and  all  sorts  of  apprehensions 
stand  in  the  way,  such  as  of  the  possible  drying  up  of  the 
water  after  several  rainless  years,  and  the  damaging  of  the 
cement  thereby,  of  competition,  of  its  being  forcibly  seized 
by  the  government  if  the  enterprise  should  turn  out  to  be 
profitable,  and  the  like,  and  the  desire  was  always  cherished 
that  the  government  should  take  the  matter  in  hand.  So 
the  project  was  always  shelved,  to  be  brought  again  upon  the 
carpet  every  winter  when  the  stream  of  rain-water  once  more 
ran  unprofitably  into  the  sea.  Now  when  the  town  is  lying 
almost  at  the  last  gasp  there  is  no  longer  any  hope  of  such 
a  work  being  carried  out.  Others  were  enthusiastic  about 
an  aqueduct  from  the  mountains,  and  petitioned  the  govern- 
ment for  it,  but  naturally  in  vain.  The  production  of  fresh- 
water from  sea -water  by  distillation,  as  is  done  by  the 
government  at  the  Egyptian  village  of  El-Wudj  on  the 
opposite  coast  of  Arabia,  where  the  pilgrims  must  submit  to 
quarantine,  obtains  least  approval;  the  Moslim  will  not 
readily  look  upon  such  an  artificial  product  as  a  true  gift 
of  God,  and  will  only  drink  it  when  forced. 

INDUSTRY. 

Manufactures  are  limited  to  articles  the  most  indispensable 
for  household  use  and  for  navigation,  the  division  of  labour 
being  carried  to  a  very  small  extent.  There  is  here  a  shoe- 
maker, or  rather  a  cobbler,  who  is  at  the  same  time  a  tannei* 
and  a  leather-sack  maker;   a  few  blacksmiths  who  work 


THE    ''courts"   and   THE   TRADE.  283 

chiefly  for  the  shipping ;  a  locksmith  who  understands  gun- 
making  thoroughly,  and  is  also  a  corpse- washer  and  Koran- 
reciter;  a  turner  and  pipe- borer,  who,  when  his  business  as 
grain  merchant  allows  him  a  few  spare  hours,  drives  his 
original  trade;  a  joiner  or  general  worker  in  wood,  who,  when 
business  is  dull,  does  not  think  it  beneath  his  dignity  to  split 
wood;  a  number  of  ship- carpenters;  a  house-builder,  who  is 
also  a  stone-cutter,  a  mason,  a  bricklayer,  and  a  plasterer, 
and  makes  room-floors  of  sand  and  earth;  a  tinsmith,  who  is 
also  a  tinker  and  a  coppersmith;  and  so  forth.  At  the  pilgrim 
season  workmen  of  various  other  trades  gather  here,  such  as 
cutlers,  cover-makers,  lace-workers,  tailors,  shoemakers,  &c.; 
these  find  employment  for  a  few  weeks  and  thus  procure 
means  for  carrying  them  farther  on  their  journey.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  manual  occupation  he  may  be  engaged  in,  every- 
body with  a  few  dollars  capital  does  a  little  bit  of  trading;  he 
travels  in  the  Nile  valley  or  to  Arabia,  and  buys  a  few  goods, 
such  as  cloth,  utensils,  fruits,  live  stock,  and  sells  them  in  the 
needy  desert-town;  even  the  "fortress-commandant'^  or  cor- 
poral takes  every  year  a  furlough-trip  to  Cairo  and  brings 
back  with  him  various  kinds  of  w^ares,  which  have  always 
a  rapid  sale. 

The  ordinary  citizen  passes  a  large  part  of  his  time  in  the 
coffee-house,  which  also  serves  as  an  exchange  for  the  mer- 
cantile class.  Here  important  affairs  are  arranged;  here  the 
ship-master  engages  his  crew,  while  others  play,  sleep,  or 
smoke  their  hookahs  in  quiet  satisfaction.  Greek  dram- 
shops, on  the  other  hand,  have  not  been  able  to  maintain 
their  ground  since  the  glory  of  the  town  passed  away;  in  the 
little  town  no  one  has  the  courage  publicly  to  appear  such  • 
a  sinner  as  the  drinker  of  spirituous  liquor  is  considered 
to  be. 

THE   "courts"   and  THE  TRADE. 

No  little  activity  manifests  itself  when  the  trade  is  being 
carried  on  in  the  "courts,"  the  magazines  of  the  wholesale 
dealers  or  grain-dealers.  These  are  partly  independent  mer- 
chants, w^ho  have  their  business  friends,  their  partners,  or 


284?  UPPER  EGYPT. 

agents  in  the  Nile  valley  and  the  sea-ports  of  Arabia;  but  the 
greater  number  are  only  agents  of  Arabic  or  Egyptian  mer- 
chants on  the  Nile.  The  camel-drivers  so  soon  as  they  arrive 
call  at  one  court  after  another  with  samples  of  their  goods, 
especially  grain,  carrying  these  in  a  knot  of  their  shawl  or 
their  turban,  or  in  a  little  bag  for  the  purpose;  others  who 
have  brought  corn  on  the  order  of  a  partner,  show  the  person 
addressed  a  sealed  packet,  also  containing  a  sample  and  a 
letter.  When  the  business  has  been  concluded,  or  everything 
found  correct,  the  camels  that  have  been  waiting  outside  the 
town  are  brought  in,  the  grain  is  poured  out  on  the  smoothly 
cemented  floor  of  the  court  and  measured.  The  caravans 
generally  remain  over  night  at  a  well  some  miles  from  the 
town,  which  they  enter  at  early  morning;  all  day  long  busi- 
ness is  transacted,  and  in  the  evening  the  caravans  start  on 
the  return  journey,  intending  to  reach  the  same  well  again. 
The  treasure-heaps  of  grain  are  now  prepared  for  shipment, 
being  remeasured  and  filled  into  sacks  of  coarse  canvas  or 
alfa-grass.  If  a  vessel  is  ready  the  sacks  of  corn  are  placed 
upon  a  handrbarrow,  consisting  of  two  beams  with  cross- 
pieces,  and  carried  by  four  men  singing  and  tripping  along 
to  the  custom-house,  and  thence  to  the  mole,  from  which  it 
is  taken  off  by  a  large  boat  and  conveyed  on  board  the  ship. 
But,  besides  grain,  there  are  also  a  number  of  other  articles 
of  trade,  which,  when  exported  or  imported,  pass  through  the 
courts.  Several  frequently  unite  together  in  one  business, 
but  only  in  the  form  of  partnerships,  not  of  large  companies; 
in  these  concerns  either  every  member  is  active,  and  con- 
tributes money  as  well,  or  the  one  contributes  the  money 
and  the  other  carries  on  the  business,  so  that  in  the  calcula- 
tion of  profit  and  loss  the  capital  reckons  as  one  factor,  the 
personal  activity  in  the  business  as  the  other.  Others  prefer 
to  have  agents  or  brokers,  and  the  latter  receive  about  2  per 
cent,  of  the  profits.  The  taking  of  interest  being  forbidden 
by  their  religion  is  not  practised  hy  the  natives  in  their  deal- 
ings with  each  other;  the  role  of  usurer,  however,  has  been 
assum^ed  by  Europeans  and  Greeks,  at  least  in  the  Nile  valley, 
and  they  take  a  high  rate  of  interest  (2  to  5  per  cent,  monthly). 


CUSTOM-HOUSE.  285 

They  now  lend  only  upon  personal  security,  since  they  have 
learned  by  experience  that  otherwise  the  money  is  certain 
to  be  lost;  mortgages  upon  land  are  not  recognized  by  the 
government,  at  least  not  willingly,  as  by  this  means  all  the 
land  might  soon  come  into  the  possession  of  the  Europeans. 
On  the  whole  pretty  sound  principles  prevail  in  the  commer- 
cial transactions  of  the  native  inhabitants  with  each  other, 
and  the  percentage  of  European  swindlers  would  probably  be 
far  higher  than  that  of  Arab  swindlers. 

CUSTOM-HOUSE. 

Goods  exported  and  imported  are  strictly  examined  in  the 
custom-house,  especially  the  former,  which  have  here  to  pay 
the  customs  dues,  while  on  the  latter  the  dues  have  generally 
already  been  levied  in  the  Turkish  sea-ports  of  Arabia,  and 
if  a  clearance  sheet  obtained  there  is  brought  with  them 
nothing  more  is  demanded  in  the  vassal-land  of  Egypt.  On 
all  goods  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  8  per  cent,  has  to  be  paid;  for 
some,  such  as  common  tobacco  and  nargileh  tobacco,  far 
more,  up  indeed  to  80  per  cent.  In  the  case  of  grain  that  is 
being  exported  every  twelfth  sack,  selected  at  pleasure  by 
the  inspector,  is  opened,  and  its  contents  poured  out  and 
measured  by  the  measurer  appointed.  There  is  generally 
found  to  be  a  surplus  over  the  stated  quantity,  and  this  is 
immediately  swept  off  to  assist  in  keeping  the  custom-house 
officials  spruce  and  in  maintaining  their  families  and  domestic 
animals.  The  goods  have  to  go  through  a  series  of  examina- 
tions and  investigations  by  the  various  customs  officials — 
measurers,  weighers,  enumerators,  valuators,  inspectors,  clerks, 
and  collectors  of  dues.  The  governor  has  the  general  super- 
vision. How  far  these  publicans  are  also  sinners  we  leave 
to  the  conjecture  of  the  reader;  who  may  easily  imagine  also 
that  on  such  a  length  of  uninhabited  and  unwatched  coast 
smuggling  cannot  be  prevented. 

The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  grain  and  leguminous  fruits, 
wheat,  barley,  millet,  beans,  lentils,  chickpeas,  also  onions, 
eggs,  fowls,  and  molasses.     Most  of  these  goods  go  to  Jeddah 


286  UPPER  EGYPT. 

and  Yemba,  also  the  places  still  belonging  to  Egypt  on  the 
opposite  coast  of  Arabia,  viz.  Wudj,  Moilah,  Debba.  The 
imports  are  much  more  unimportant  than  the  exports, 
most  vessels  returning  empty.  The  number  of  the  articles 
imported,  however,  is  much  greater.  The  principal  are  coffee 
(the  most  important  of  all),  carpets,  spices  (such  as  pepper, 
cinnamon,  cloves,  and  ginger),  essential  oils,  frankincense, 
myrrh,  mastic,  gum  Arabic,  henna,  tamarinds,  indigo,  nargileh 
tobacco,  cocoa-nuts,  rice,  cotton,  and  silk  stuffs,  and  house- 
hold furniture  and  utensils.  All  these  are  brought  chiefly 
from  Jeddah,  which  is  the  emporium  for  all  the  products  of 
the  East,  from  Arabia  and  Persia  to  India  and  China.  From 
Yemba  come — dates  in  skins,  honey,  hides,  grease,  and  also 
sheep  and  camels;  from  the  places  on  the  opposite  coast,  sheep, 
goats,  camels,  grease,  wood,  coal,  and  salt,  though  the  last  is 
strictly  prohibited.  Asses  and  horses  are  sometimes  brought 
from  Nejd.  Lastly,  the  pearl-oyster  shells,  which  the  Be- 
douins of  the  Egyptian  coast  bring  in  their  vessels,  must  also 
pay  duty  here,  and  these  form  an  important  article.  Slaves 
are  scarcely  ever  brought  into  the  country  by  this  route  now, 
A  short  time  ago,  when  the  grain  trade  was  carried  on,  the 
customs  dues  are  said  to  have  amounted  to  about  £5000 
annually,  to  which  must  be  added  the  tax  for  the  road  to  the 
Nile  valley,  amounting  to  £2000  (?).  The  latter  tax  is  levied 
for  the  security  of  the  road,  which  the  chiefs  of  the  Ababdeh 
have  to  guarantee,  and  therefore  receive  about  one-eighth  of 
the  money  raised.  Special  officials  are  appointed  for  the 
collection  of  the  road-tax. 

THE   GOVERNMENT  GRAIN- STORE. 

There  is  much  activity  in  the  large  court  surrounded  by 
high  stone  walls  of  the  shilna  or  government  grain-store,  in 
which  the  clacMre  (see  p.  272)  are  stored.  At  many  places  in 
the  Nile  valley  there  are  also  many  similar  grain  magazines, 
at  which  the  peasants  of  the  Nile  can  deliver  their  tribute  in 
kind.  From  these  the  government  draws  its  supplies  for  the 
military,  &;c.,  or  it  sells  the  corn;  a  portion  of  this,  however, 


'M 


THE   GOVERNMENT   GRAIN-STORE.  287 

goes  to  make  up  those  consignments  of  grain  that,  as  already 
mentioned,  are  sent  to  the  "sacred  land,"  and  a  multitude  of 
camel-drivers  have  to  convey  it  to  the  granary  at  Koseir, 
either  being  paid  directly  for  their  services  or  by  a  remission 
of  taxes.  Every  driver  receives  a  written  statement  of  the 
quantity  of  grain  delivered  to  him,  and  a  sealed  sample  to 
show  the  quality.  In  the  granary  the  corn  is  now  poured 
into  boxes  of  a  basin  or  sand-glass  shape,  from  which  it  runs 
by  a  small  aperture  into  the  measure  of  the  grain  measurer; 
like  the  dictating  scribe,  with  whom  we  have  already  become 
acquainted  (see  Chap.  i.  p.  63),  this  functionary  proclaims,  in 
a  peculiar  monotonous  melody,  the  numbers  he  obtains  from 
his  measurements.  These  must  agree  with  those  on  the 
invoice  given  by  the  granary  officials  in  the  Kile  valley;  but 
they  often  do  not  agree,  and  the  matter  does  not  terminate 
without  much  noise  and  wrangling.  The  grain  measured  off 
is  carried  into  the  corners  of  the  warehouse,  where  it  rises 
gradually  into  great  mountains  to  the  tops  of  which  the 
carriers  ascend  at  every  round  by  means  of  boards  planted 
against  their  sides.  The  stored  grain  is  now  conveyed  to  the 
vessels,  into  the  holds  of  which  it  is  poured  loose  till  they  are 
full  to  the  gunwale.  No  one  is  in  the  granary  during  the 
night,  and  the  great  door  is  sealed  every  evening  with  a  large 
seal  of  clay.  The  superintendent  is  responsible  for  the  quan- 
tity in  the  store  between  the  time  he  leaves  and  the  time  he 
enters.  When  the  grain  has  been  conveyed  by  ship  to  Hedjaz, 
it  is  there  measured  afresh  and  compared  with  the  sealed 
sample  sent  along  with  it — so  that  there  is  check  upon  check, 
and  yet  every  grain  of  corn  that  has  reached  its  destination 
would  have  plenty  to  tell  of  brothers  lost,  one  after  the  other. 
It  is  not  very  easy  to  convict  the  camel-driver  of  putting  a 
few  handfuls  of  earth  into  each  sack  and  taking  out  the  same 
quantity  of  corn;  and  if  he  has  a  bad  conscience  he  knows 
how  to  make  the  corn-measurer  keep  quiet,  who,  by  a  cer- 
tain method  of  placing  the  measure  and  other  dodges,  has  it 
in  his  power  to  make  the  grain  turn  out  more  or  less.  It  is 
a  common  saying  that  the  grain-measurer  may  heap  up  trea- 
sures in  this  world,  but  will  never  attain  a  high  place  in  para- 


288  UPPER  EGYPT. 

dise.  The  ship-master,  too,  is  not  readily  detected  if,  on  the 
high  sea,  or  even  while  in  port,  he  allows  his  vessel  to  ship 
a  sea  or  two  so  as  to  wet  the  cargo  and  cause  the  grain  to 
swell.  When  subsequently  measured,  it  will  still  be  of  the 
full  bulk,  but  will  contain  fewer  grains.  From  the  surplus 
produced  by  thus  levjdng  such  small  requisitions  or  large 
quantities,  many  a  person  supports  himself  and  his  household 
the  whole  year  round.  The  pigeons,  too,  cannot  be  altogether 
prevented  from  the  more  innocent  thefts  committed  by  them 
on  the  corn-heaps  early  in  the  morning.  In  storms  many  a 
bushel  has  to  be  thrown  overboard  from  the  deeply-laden 
vessel,  and  then  the  whole  crew  has  to  swear  that  this  was 
done  from  necessity.  Oaths  are  readily  taken  by  the  Mos- 
limin,  if  they  square  with  their  interest,  and  the  storm  need 
not  have  been  a  very  severe  one. 

THE  PORT. 

The  harbour  is  a  wide  bay  open  towards  the  east,  or  rather 
a  sherm,  that  is,  an  opening  in  a  coral  reef  stretching  along 
the  coast  and  connected  with  it,  not  separated  by  an  atoll. 
This  openiog  is  wider  than  in  the  case  of  other  sherms,  which 
generally  occur  at  intervals  of  a  few  miles  and  afford  direct 
access  and  shelter  for  small  vessels.  The  entrance  is  perfectly 
safe,  and  not  rendered  dangerous  by  rocks  that  are  near  the  sur- 
face, though  always  covered  by  water.  The  harbour  is  avail- 
able as  such,  however,  only  in  the  northern  part  of  the  bay, 
where  it  is  deeper,  and  is  protected  against  the  north  winds, 
which  prevail  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  by  a  coral 
reef  running  out  in  the  form  of  a  curve.  Towards  the  south 
the  bay  becomes  shallow  through  the  accumulation  of  sand, 
and  as  no  dredging-machine  is  employed  the  sanding  up  goes 
on  year  after  year.  The  larger  sized  European  sailing  vessels 
and  steamers  cannot  venture  into  the  sheltered  space  behind 
the  reef,  and  must  anchor  at  a  considerable  distance  out  in 
the  roadstead,  exposed  to  the  violence  of  the  sea.  Accord- 
ingly they  prefer  not  to  visit  the  port  at  all,  especially  as  they 
are  not  attracted  by  commercial  advantages.    Even  the  Egyp- 


THE  MOLE.  289 

tian  mail  and  other  steamers  do  not  touch  at  Koseir,  though 
they  regularly  visit  the  other  ports  of  the  sea,  Suez,  Jeddah, 
Suakin,  and  Massowah.  Other  steamers  that  call  occasionally 
have  generally  met  with  some  accident,  or  are  brought  by 
the  want  of  coals. 

Against  east  and  south-east  winds,  which  very  often  blow 
in  winter,  the  harbour  is  quite  unprotected.  The  bay,  at 
other  times  so  peaceful,  now  throws  up  high  waves,  washes 
the  soil  away  where  it  consists  merely  of  shot  rubbish,  makes 
breaches  in  the  stone  walls,  and  damages  the  wooden  mole, 
while  wave  after  wave  rolls  up  over  the  bank  of  sand  that 
forms  the  beach,  and  leaves  a  salt  lagoon  to  remain  until  it 
dries  up  and  forms  a  white  streak  of  salt.  The  vessels  pitch 
and  roll  in  a  dangerous  manner,  and,  snapping  their  cables, 
run  aground  and  go  to  pieces  in  the  shallow  harbour,  or 
perhaps  come  into  collision  and  smash  each  other.  On  such 
occasions  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for  the  greater  number 
of  the  vessels  in  the  harbour  to  be  wrecked.  The  whole  shore 
is  then  strewed  with  grain  and  fragments  of  wreck.  One  can 
foretell  the  approach  of  such  a  wind  by  the  rise  of  a  small 
white  cloud  in  the  eastern  horizon,  after  a  period  of  almost 
perfect  calm.  A  slight  breeze,  gradually  increasing  in  strength, 
then  rises,  the  suspicious  little  cloud  approaches  with  aston- 
ishing rapidity,  and  in  a  brief  space  a  raging,  howling  tempest 
prevails.  With  the  noise  of  the  wind  are  mingled  the  shouts 
of  the  sailors,  who  must  be  at  their  posts  in  order  to  secure 
the  anchor  and  keep  everything  in  order;  while  above  all  are 
heard  the  orders  of  the  shipmasters  and  the  cries  of  the 
women,  anxious  about  those  at  sea  belonging  to  them. 

THE  MOLE. 

The  wooden  mole  running  out  into  the  sea  is  always  an 
animated  scene.  It  is  supported  on  wooden  piles  that  are 
perpetually  eaten  into  by  the  ship- worm,  and  always  require 
renewal  from  time  to  time.  Kecently  the  government  refused 
to  repair  it,  or  any  public  building  of  the  province,  and  the 
consequence  was  that  the  half  of  the  mole  was  carried  away 

19 


290  UPPER  EGYPT. 

by  an  easterly  storm.  The  fishing  vessels  and  passenger- 
boats  lie  beside  the  mole;  on  it  boys  angle  for  the  fishes  that 
swim  in  multitudes  between  the  piles;  here  the  ship-owner 
watches  from  a  distance  the  labours  of  his  people,  while  others 
take  here  their  siesta,  fanned  by  the  cool  breeze.  Everything 
that  comes  and  goes  by  sea  has  to  pass  the  mole,  where  the 
custom-house  officers  examine  with  a  searching  look  every 
passer-b}^  Goods  to  be  shipped  are  brought  from  the  custom- 
house to  the  mole,  and  thence  are  conveyed  by  boat  to  the 
vessel,  those  to  be  landed  going  through  the  reverse  process. 

ARRIVAL  AND  DEPARTURE  OF   VESSELS. 

Much  animation  is  exhibited  when  vessels  are  arriving  or 
departing.  This  always  forms  an  event.  As  soon  as  a  vessel 
appears  in  sight,  the  fact  is  announced  by  the  boys  with  a 
loud  Hariyeh !  Hariyeh  !  Others  then  look  in  the  direction 
indicated,  and  if  they  can  confirm  the  report  they  join  in  the 
cry.  The  news  is  thus  carried  through  the  whole  town,  and 
forthwith  on  the  roofs  or  terraces  of  the  houses  appear  female 
figures,  the  relatives  of  mariners  or  passengers  expected. 
Arming  themselves  with  telescopes  the  merchants  or  ship- 
owners proceed  to  the  beach  or  to  neighbouring  heights  in 
order  that  they  may  find  out,  as  soon  as  possible,  what  ship 
it  is  that  is  approaching.  On  the  entrance  of  a  vessel  an 
inquisitive  crowd  always  collects  on  the  mole,  but  they 
require  to  exercise  their  patience  for  a  little.  The  sanitary 
officers  must  first  take  a  boat  and  go  on  board  the  vessel  to 
inspect  it.  At  no  time  do  the  inhabitants  show  greater 
respect  to  the  sanitary  officials  than  at  such  moments,  when 
it  is  a  question  of  discharge  or  quarantine.  If  on  account  of 
the  suspicious  illness  of  a  single  individual  the  vessel  is 
ordered  by  the  sanitary  officers  to  go  into  quarantine,  or  if  the 
higher  authorities  have  ordered  quarantine  to  be  enforced  in 
the  case  of  all  vessels  whatsoever,  then  communication  with  the 
vessel  is  prohibited,  a  quarantine  watchman  is  put  on  board, 
the  sanitary  agent  takes  possession  of  all  letters  and  papers, 
fumigates  them  and  pierces  tliem  through  and  through  accord- 


ARRIVAL   AND   DEPARTURE   OF  VESSELS.  291 

ing  to  the  professional  practice,  and  finally  distributes 
them.  If  pratique  is  given,  a  custom-house  officer  must  go 
on  board  and  inspect  the  goods  before  anyone  can  land. 
AVhen  the  letters,  which  are  rolled  up  like  ribbons,  have 
been  distributed,  there  may  be  seen  stretching  along  the 
mole,  and  up  into  the  town,  a  whole  host  of  readers,  whose 
countenances  and  gestures  plainly  tell  whether  their  busi- 
ness affairs  are  in  a  satisfactory  state  or  not.  The  sailors 
and  passengers  hasten  to  their  houses,  after  submitting  to  the 
embraces  of  all  their  acquaintances  on  the  way,  and  appear 
in  public  several  hours  later  dressed  in  their  best  clothes. 
The  more  important  of  them,  however,  are  followed  even  into 
their  houses;  they  have  scarcely  time  to  speak  to  their  fami- 
lies, still  less  to  wash  themselves  and  change  their  clothes. 
Their  reception-room  is  immediately  filled  with  a  crowd  of 
people  who  come  to  pay  their  respects  and  hear  the  news,  and 
who  are  treated  to  coffee.  People  arriving  after  a  journey 
through  the  desert  have  also  to  hold  such  a  reception,  how- 
ever fatigued  they  may  be,  such  being  the  etiquette;  they 
have  not  to  pay  visits  themselves.  Some  time  after  the 
arrival  of  the  vessel,  generally  the  next  day,  the  ship  is 
unloaded.  Perhaps  a  few  camels  have  been  brought  by  the 
vessel,  the  poor  beasts  being  tied  up  in  the  hold  so  tightly 
as  often  to  stiffen  their  necks.  These  are  now  pulled  up  by 
ropes  and  pulleys  and  let  down  into  the  water,  and  half-swim- 
ming half-wading  they  have  to  find  the  way  ashore  them- 
selves. 

The  departure  of  a  vessel  is  accompanied  with  a  like  amount 
of  ceremony.  Vessels  that  are  about  to  cross  to  the  opposite 
shore  always  set  sail  in  the  forenoon,  never  in  the  afternoon 
or  evening.  When  the  ship's  papers  are  all  in  order,  in 
particular  when  a  declaration  that  he  will  not  desert  has  been 
written  for  every  sailor,  and  when  also  a  bill  of  health  has 
been  drawn  up,  the  vessel  is  boarded  by  a  deputation  from 
the  governor,  and  by  the  sanitary  officers  in  company  with 
the  owner,  and  other  persons  who  wish  to  see  their  friends 
off.  The  papers  are  now  handed  to  the  captain,  who  gives 
a  gratuity  to  the  officials.     Intimate   friends  and  relations 


292  UPPER  EGYPT. 

embrace  each  other,  exchange  affectionate  farewells,  oftenj 
with  tears,  and  beg  each  other's  forgiveness  in  case  either  hm^ 
offended  the  other  by  word  or  deed.  When  people  are  setting 
out  for  the  Nile  valley  also,  it  is  the  regular  thing  for  their 
friends  to  accompany  them  for  some  distance,  and  take  an  affec- 
tionate leave  of  them.  At  last  those  that  intend  to  remain, 
re-enter  their  boat,  wishing  everybody  a  good  voyage,  the 
great  sail  is  unfurled,  a  fatha  is  uttered,  and  the  vessel  now 
sails  rapidly  out  to  the  open  sea,  followed  by  the  gazes  and 
good-wishes  of  the  women,  who  assemble  on  the  beach  that 
they  may  also  witness  the  departure  of  those  belonging  to 
them. 

THE  VESSELS   OF   THE   RED    SEA. 

The  native  vessels  trading  in  this  sea  have  something  anti- 
quated and  bizarre  in  their  appearance.  They  are  usually 
disproportionately  short;  the  hinder  part  is  remarkably  broad 
and  high,  terminating  abruptly  in  a  sloping  stern,  and  con- 
taining the  cabin,  which,  being  only  between  5  and  6  feet 
in  height,  scarcely  permits  one  to  stand  upright,  and  is  not 
provided  with  berths  or  any  kind  of  furniture.  Behind,  and 
sometimes  also  in  the  sides,  the  cabin  has  a  few  open  air-holes; 
towards  the  forepart  of  the  ship  it  is  quite  open  or  provided 
with  a  door,  but  the  entrance  is  generally  so  encumbered 
with  bales  of  goods  that  only  a  small  aperture  is  left.  The 
women  and  children  are  packed  into  the  cabin,  it  being 
thought  better  to  expose  them  to  all  the  horrors  of  sea-sick- 
ness— which  in  this  close  stuffy  hole  is  sure  to  attack  them — 
than  to  the  gaze  of  the  crew  and  passengers.  The  roof  of  the 
cabin,  or  the  hinder-deck,  forms  an  open  platform  elevated 
high  above  the  rest  of  the  vessel,  and  is  called  in  Arabic 
huTsi,  that  is,  seat  or  stage.  As  is  also  the  case  in  the  Nile 
vessels,  this  is  the  station  of  the  steersman,  who  overlooks 
the  whole  ship,  and  governs  the  helm  by  means  of  a  long 
lever  projecting  towards  him.  In  a  box  before  him,  and 
lighted  by  an  oil  lamp,  swings  the  antiquated  compass,  of 
Frankish  origin  but  with  Arabic  improvements,  and  with 
stars  in  place  of  the  points  on  the  card.     The  after-deck 


THE   VESSELS   OF   THE   RED   SEA.  293 

is  also  the  best  place  for  the  passengers,  since  in  these 
regions  it  is  most  agreeable  to  live  in  the  open  air.  The  sea 
breeze  tempers  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun,  which  may  also 
be  avoided  by  awnings,  and  in  winter  sufficient  warmth  may 
be  obtained  by  the  use  of  woollen  wrappings,  the  sea  breeze 
at  this  season  rendering  the  cold  less  severe.  The  large  space 
amidships  is  without  a  deck,  and  when  the  vessel  is  empt}'^ — 
as  it  usually  is  on  the  return  voyage  from  Arabia — communi- 
cation fore  and  aft  is  only  maintained  by  means  of  planks, 
carelessly  laid  down  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  which  cannot 
be  traversed  without  danger,  at  least  by  the  inexperienced. 
There  is  less  danger  when  the  vessel  has  a  full  load  of  grain 
in  sacks  or  lying  loose;  but  the  vessel  then  rises  only  a  few 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and,  when  the  sea  is  high, 
the  waves  break  over  her,  and  drench  both  crew  and  cargo. 
The  prow  of  the  vessel  always  terminates  in  a  curiously- 
twisted  beak  of  varying  length.  The  fore-part  is  covered 
with  a  short  deck,  on  which  the  fire-place  is  situated,  an 
•earthen  vessel  or  wooden  box  filled  with  clay  serving  for  a 
grate.  A  sailor  or  ship-boy,  who  knows  something  about 
cookery,  here  cooks  the  daily  food  of  the  crew — the  bruised 
barley  and  lentils — in  a  large  narrow-mouthed  copper  kettle, 
and  bakes  the  thin  cakes  of  unleavened  flour.  The  drinking- 
water  is  kept  in  a  large  quadrangular  wooden  trough.  When 
water  collects  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  it  is  simply  baled 
out,  there  being  no  pump.  One  man  passes  on  the  baling 
pitcher  to  the  other,  and  the  uppermost  empties  it  into  a 
wooden  gutter  laid  crosswise  over  the  ship. 

The  huge  triangular  or  trapezoidal  sail  is  hoisted  on  the 
mast  by  means  of  a  system  of  pulleys.  Whenever  the  sail  is 
to  be  braced  round,  the  ropes  which  are  attached  to  the  mast 
and  impede  the  movement  of  the  yard  have  to  be  unfastened, 
while  the  sail  is  let  down  a  little.  During  this  operation, 
which  is  quite  different  from  that  practised  on  board  the 
Nile  boats,' the  weight  of  the  sail  causes  the  vessel  to  heel 
over  dangerously  to  one  side,  especially  if  a  strong  gust  of 
wind  has  suddenly  come  on.  Larger  vessels  have  also  a 
smaller  auxiliary  sail  at  the  fore-end  of  the  hinder-deck.    The 


294?  UPPER   EGYPT. 

flag  is  attached  either  to  a  rope  belonging  to  the  small  hinder- 
mast,  or  to  the  top  of  the  mainmast.  The  flag  used  is  the 
Turkish — a  white  crescent  and  a  few  stars  on  a  red  ground. 
Vessels  belonging  to  sherifs  or  descendants  of  the  Prophet 
have  the  right  to  carry  a  green  flag.  The  numerous  native 
consular  agents  of  foreign  powers  may  show,  and  indeed  are 
bound  to  show,  on  their  house  the  flag  of  the  country  they 
represent,  but  for  some  time  their  vessels  have  been  strictly 
prohibited  from  carrying  it,  "since  they  do  not  know  the 
usages  of  the  sea." 

The  greater  part  of  the  materials  for  the  Red  Sea  vessels 
are  brought  from  Jeddah  and  "India/'  the  latter  name  as 
used  by  the  Arabic  seamen  of  these  regions  comprising  also 
Yemen.  The  ropes  and  cables  are  made  of  palm  and  cocoa- 
nut  fibre,  the  anchors  never  having  chain  cables.  Teak,  from 
"India,"  is  the  timber  most  highly  prized  in  shipbuilding, 
and  forms  the  planking  of  the  vessels.  It  is  very  strong,  and 
is  said  by  its  bitterness  to  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  ship- 
worm,  which  is  here  very  destructive.  Partly  on  account  of 
the  ravages  of  this  creature,  partly  to  renew  the  water-tight 
coating,  vessels  are  careened  every  five  months  at  least,  and 
are  smeared  with  grease  and  lime,  or  sandarac  and  oil,  and 
thoroughly  caulked  with  raw  cotton.  From  time  to  time  also 
vessels  are  painted  with  a  variety  of  angular  figures,  streaks, 
and  stripes  in  order  to  improve  their  appearance,  the  colours 
used  being  chiefly  white,  black,  and  red.  The  after  portion 
of  the  vessel  in  particular  is  the  part  thus  decorated.  Oak 
and  pine  from  Syria  and  Greece  are  also  used  in  ship- 
building. 

The  vessels  receive  different  names  according  to  their  form 
and  size.  These  names  are  quite  different  from  the  Arabic 
designation  of  vessels  commonly  used  in  the  Mediterranean; 
some  of  them  do  not  sound  like  Arabic  at  all,  and  might, 
perhaps,  be  traced  back  to  Indian  or  Frankish  roots.  Range 
or  gauge  is  the  name  of  a  large  vessel  with  a  capacity  of 
over  3000  ardeb,^  and  having  a  long  beak;  dhow  is  the  name 

•    '    '     .        •'I  ardeb  =  5  Englisli  bushels,  and  corresponds  to  8  l:ele.  .  .    ,     . ,.  ; 


THE  ship's  company.  295 

of  a  similar  vessel  with  a  very  large  stern;  a  haghleh  is  similar 
but  wants  the  beak.  The  most  common  form  is  called  sam- 
huh;  it  is  somewhat  smaller  and  has  a  short  beak.  Katera 
is  a  smaller  vessel,  such  as  is  used  in  the  coasting  trade  and 
the  pearl  fishery;  feluka  is  a  ship's  boat,  gurdi,  a  fishing- 
boat,  eshkif  (French  esquif),  a  cargo-boat  for  harbour  service, 
hu7'i,  a  canoe  made  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 

THE  ship's  company. 

The  captain  of  the  vessel,  reyis  or  nachude,  has  only  to 
attend  to  matters  of  administration.  He  is  responsible  for 
order  being  kept  in  the  vessel  and  for  the  money  required 
in  managing  it,  he  has  to  account  to  the  harbour-police 
and  the  sanitary  authorities  when  required  to  do  so;  but 
of  seamanship  he  is  often  quite  ignorant.  The  son  or  a 
relative  of  the  owner  may  hold  this  post,  or  the  owner 
himself  when  he  accompanies  the  vessel.  The  professional 
shipmaster  is  the  steersman  (ruhan),  but  generally  the 
steersman  and  the  captain  are  one  and  the  same  person. 
The  crew  (taifa)  is  generally  numerous  relatively  to  the  size 
of  the  vessel,  since  the  defective  equipment  must  be  counter- 
balanced by  the  number  of  the  men.  The  common  number 
is  from  six  to  ten,  but  larger  vessels  may  have  eighteen  or 
twenty;  among  these,  however,  are  generally  a  few  passengers 
who  have  got  themselves  booked  as  sailors  in  order  to  avoid 
the  numerous  formalities  and  expenses  imposed  by  the  autho- 
rities. Over  the  common  sailors  is  placed  a  mate  or  boat- 
swain (mokaddim),  and  under  them  are  one  or  several  ship- 
boys.  The  sailors  are  either  free  natives  of  the  sea-ports  on 
the  east  and  west  coasts,  with  some  Egyptian  Fellahin  among 
them,  or  black  slaves  either  belonging  to  the  owner  or  hired 
from  some  one  else.  Their  dexterity  is  wonderful,  especially 
that  of  the  blacks.  Having  nothing  on  but  a  cloth  round 
the  loins  and  a  quilted  skull-cap,  they  leap  with  truly 
monkey-like  agility  and  ease  over  the  planks  that  serve  as 
gangways  above  the  hold;  with  a  spring  or  two  they  scamper 
up  the  mast,  seizing  a  rope  with  their  hands  and  pressing 


296  UPPER  EGYPT. 

their  feet  against  another  near  it;  they  even  practise  the  still 
more  monkey-like  habit  of  seizing  the  latter  with  their  big 
toe.  In  addition  to  this  quadrumanous  faculty,  the  black 
monkey-like  race  of  men  are  distinguished  by  their  long 
arms,  slender  feet,  small  calves,  projecting  jaws,  low  forehead, 
and  flat  nose,  as  well  as  by  their  fondness  for  bellowing  and 
grinning ;  but  the  Semites  likewise,  and,  as  the  sculptures  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians  show,  the  Hamites  also  adopted  to 
some  extent  this  quadrumanous  habit.  Unlike  the  European 
sailors,  whose  strong  point  is  said  not  to  be  swimming,  the 
Arabic  sailors  are  as  much  at  home  in  the  water  as  on  ship- 
board. Not  having  first  to  take  off  their  clothes  they  are  at 
all  times  ready  to  jump  into  the  water  (which  is  always  com- 
paratively warm  here)  in  order  to  stop  a  leak,  or  to  dive 
down  and  put  the  anchor  to  rights,  or  to  swim  ashore  though 
the  vessel  is  a  considerable  distance  from  land;  and  it  is  said 
that  when  in  quarantine  they  frequently  visit  their  relatives 
at  home  under  cover  of  night. 

It  is  pleasant  to  see  and  hear  them  at  their  work,  as  they 
always  lighten  their  toils  with  singing  when  engaged  in  any 
common  task.  When  rowing  they  sing,  like  the  mariners  of 
the  Nile,  but  the  words  and  the  airs  are  different.  If  the 
sail  is  to  be  hoisted,  for  instance,  a  leader  will  begin  by  sing- 
ing, in  the  highest  falsetto  he  can  produce  from  his  throat, 
a  meaningless  word  or  two,  such  as  moluchiyeh  (the  spinach- 
like plant  already  mentioned),  and  at  once  the  chorus  of  sea- 
men at  work  follows  with  '-moluchiyeh^in  the  deepest  bass, 
giving  the  sail  a  heave  up  at  the  same  time.  The  same  thing 
may  be  seen  when  a  ship  is  to  be  launched,  an  operation 
which  always  requires  a  large  number  of  men,  since  there  is 
no  machinery  for  the  purpose.  Such  scenes  exactly  resemble 
the  transporting  of  colossal  figures  as  depicted  on  the  ancient 
monuments.  There  an  overseer  may  be  seen  posted  at  some 
elevated  point  and  giving  his  orders  by  clapping  his  hands, 
hundreds  of  naked  workmen  tug  at  the  ropes  in  order  to 
bring  forwards  the  sledge  upon  which  the  colossus  is  placed, 
and  among  the  ancients,  too,  the  work  always  went  on  with 
singing.     When,  however,  a  work  of  considerable  magnitude 


THE   SHIPS   COMPANY. 


297 


is  finished,  saj^,  for  instance,  that  a  ship  has  been  built,  or 
that  a  vessel  has  safely  landed  after  a  long  and  perilous  voy- 
age, or  that  pratique  has  been  received  after  some  days' 
quarantine,  then  the  naked  and  many-coloured  chorus  of 
sailors  execute  a  fantasie.  The  strange  quavering  falsetto 
of  the  leader  is  again  heard,  the  chorus  chimes  in  with  a 
hoarse,  Tartarean,  hollow,  roaring  voice,  one  or  two  of  the 
sailors  beat  the  small  sieve-like  hand-drums,  another  prepares 
with  a  mallet  one  of  the  skins  of  his  drum  while  he  strikes  the 
other  with  his  hand  in  order  to  leave  no  means  of  producing 
music  unemployed;  the  rest  grin,  and  dance,  and  clap  their 
hands.  The  artists  are  able  to  continue  for  hours  on  end  with 
the  same  aria.  This  certainly  innocent  ftmtasie  is  too  bar- 
barous to  have  been  an  invention  of  the  Arabic  sailors,  who, 
however,  join  in  it  with  as  much  hearti- 
ness as  if  it  were  their  national  song ;  it 
can  only  have  come  from  the  land  of  the 
bellowing  blacks,  but  seems  to  have  been 
used  on  this  sea  for  hundreds  of  years, 
and  is  likely  to  continue  for  as  long.  In 
moments  of  leisure,  especially  on  quiet 
moonlight  nights,  the  sailor  takes  his 
lute  {tuinhara),  an  instrument  to  be 
found  on  board  ever}^  vessel,  and  sings 
and  plays  the  peculiar  languishing  Ara- 
bic airs,  surrounded  by  a  crowd  who 
earnestly  listen  or  join  in  themselves. 
The  lute  consists  of  a  hemispherical  body,  which  was  origi- 
nallv  a  drinkin^r  vessel  or  a  melon,  havino'  a  skin  stretched 
across  it,  and  two  diverging  bars  projecting  from  it  and 
united  at  their  ends  by  a  cross-bar.  To  this  several  strings  of 
gut,  generally  five,  are  attached;  these  converge  towards  the 
lower  part  of  the  body,  to  which  they  are  attached,  and  in 
the  middle  of  which  rises  a  bridge,  as  in  the  violin,  to  keep 
them  tight.  The  entire  instrument  is  made  by  the  sailor 
himself. 


Mariner's  Lute. 


208  UPPER  EGYPT. 


NAVIGATION. 


The  native  vessels  in  the  Red  Sea  are  almost  exclusively 
employed  in  the  coasting  trade.  It  is  only  vessels  of  a  cer- 
tain size  and  tonnage  (about  800  ardeb)  that  venture  to  take 
the  open  sea  and  cross  from  one  shore  to  the  other.  But  such 
a  voyage  is  always  a  risk;  the  mariner  waits  for  a  favourable 
wind  before  venturing  on  it,  and  it  often  lasts  eight  days, 
and  sometimes  as  much  as  fourteen.  No  Moslim  sets  any 
value  on  time,  however.  Vessels  always  try  to  make  the 
opposite  coast  as  soon  as  possible,  and  to  select  the  shortest 
run,  keeping  well  inshore  for  the  rest  of  their  voyage,  at 
some  distance  from  the  coast  reef,  to  be  sure,  but  always  in 
sight  of  land.  They  regularly  pass  the  night  in  one  of  the 
numerous  harbours  or  sherms.  With  a  favourable  wind  the 
opposite  coast  comes  in  sight  in  the  course  of  the  next  day 
after  setting  sail,  or  if  the  nearest  point  of  the  opposite  coast 
is  to  be  reached,  the  port  of  destination  being,  for  instance, 
El  Wudj,  then  land  may  be  seen  early  in  the  morning  of  the 
next  day,  that  is,  in  about  twenty  hours.  Vessels  sailing 
from  Koseir  to  Jeddah  or  Yemba  usually  endeavour  to  make 
the  island  of  Gebel  Hassan.  The  voyage  from  Koseir  to 
Jeddah  usually  occupies  from  six  to  twelve  days,  from  Koseir 
to  Yemba  three  to  five.  The  return  voyage  lasts  much 
longer,  since  in  summer  north  and  north-east  winds  almost 
constantly  prevail  in  this  part  of  the  sea,  becoming  less  vio- 
lent, or  ceasing  to  blow  altogether  only  after  it  is  well  through 
the  afternoon;  in  winter  they  are  often  interrupted  by  south- 
east and  east  winds.  The  return  voyage  from  Jeddah  to 
Koseir  therefore  occupies  from  sixteen  to  forty  days,  from 
Yemba  twelve  to  twenty-five,  from  El  Wudj  three  to  ten. 
As  the  last-named  port  lies  a  little  further  to  the  south  than 
Koseir  vessels  have  to  work  their  way  northwards  along  the 
coast  for  several  days  in  order  to  get  the  north  wind  to  take 
tliem  across  to  Koseir.  From  Suez  to  Koseir  is  a  voyage  of 
tliree  to  eight  days,  from  Koseir  to  Suez  of  as  many  weeks. 
This  prevalence  of  the  north  wind  (at  the  mouth  of  the  sea  it 
gives  place  to  the  south  wind),  combined  with  the  numerous 


NAVIGATION.  299 

reefs  and  currents,  is  one  of  the  chief  impediments  to  naviga- 
tion on  the  Red  Sea,  renderinor  it  almost  nnnaviojable  for 
large  sailing  vessels,  which  always  go  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  notwithstanding  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  These 
obstacles  can  only  be  overcome  by  steamers  and  the  smaller 
Arabic  sailing  vessels.  The  ancients  always  started  on  their 
voyages  in  the  summer  months  and  returned  in  winter  when 
the  winds  are  more  changeable  and  favourable.  Like  other 
seas  the  Red  Sea  is  also  subject  to  storms.  They  are  fewest 
in  summer  and  most  common  in  the  beginning  of  winter, 
especially  in  November.  Storms  from  the  north  often  last  a 
fortnight,  those  from  the  east  and  south-east  only  a  few  days. 
In  a  violent  storm  the  captain  does  not  hesitate  too  long  be- 
fore causing  part  of  the  cargo  to  be  thrown  overboard  in  oider 
to  lighten  the  vessel,  vessels  being  generally  overloaded  and 
sunk  almost  to  the  water's  edge.  Native  vessels  are  very 
liable  to  meet  with  this  misfortune,  and  the  owner  of  the 
goods,  like  a  good  Moslim,  after  a  few  lamentations,  resigns 
himself  to  his  fate.  Marine  insurance  is  unknown.  Amonof 
the  citizens,  accordingly,  there  are  many  ups  and  downs  of 
fortune.  When  the  ship  is  thus  lightened,  and  after  the  large 
sail  is  furled,  it  pitches  about  and  drifts  with  the  waves;  )»ut 
there  is  generally  time  to  take  refuge  in  some  sherm  or  other. 
If,  however,  the  danger  of  sinking  is  too  great;  if  a  leak  can- 
not even  be  stopped  up  with  a  flour-bag — a  tried  and  ap- 
proved method;  if,  as  is  very  often  the  case,  there  is  no  boat 
on  board;  and  if,  lastly,  there  is  no  time  to  build  a  raft,  then 
the  bold  skipper,  after  calculating  the  draught  of  his  vessel  and 
the  height  of  the  breakers,  in  despair  steers  straight  for  the 
coral  reef,  which  is  always  flat  and  with  shallow  water  above, 
and  runs  his  vessel  aground  on  it.  The  vessel  must  now  go 
to  pieces;  but  it  is  almost  high  and  dry.  The  men  jump 
from  the  wreck,  and  at  once,  or  after  swimming  towards  the 
land,  get  a  firm  footing  in  the  still  water  on  the  reef  But 
this  does  not  always  happen;  some  even  maintain  that  it  is 
impossible.  However,  it  is  very  rare  in  this  sea  for  Arabic 
vessels  to  founder  with  all  their  crew,  and  so  far  as  bare  life 
is  concerned  there  is  more  safetv  in  a  sambuk,  miserable  as 


.300  UPPER   EGYPT. 

it  appears,  than  in  a  fine  European  steamer,  constructed  and 
fitted  up  in  the  most  substantial  manner. 

USE  OF  THE  COMPASS   AND   STARS. 

The  larger  vessels  generally  carry  a  compass,  having  stars 
marked  on  the  card  as  already  mentioned;  but  the  steersman 
does  not  make  much  use  of  it,  and  mere  coasters  that  never 
cross  the  sea,  but  always  keep  to  the  same  side  of  it,  have 
no  compass  at  all.  The  mariner,  so  ignorant  generally  as  not 
to  be  able  to  read,  directs  his  course  much  better  by  the  stars 
themselves,  which  are  seldom  obscured  by  clouds;  and  since 
lie  usually  remains  near  the  shore,  and  sails  only  by  da}^, 
except  when  crossing  the  sea,  the  mountains  form  excellent 
landmarks.  Local  knowledge  is  therefore  his  chief  requisite. 
In  this  quarter  practical  astronomy  generally  speaking  plays 
an  important  part  in  seamanship.  Besides  the  north  star 
there  are  also  certain  other  guiding  stars.  A  vessel's  course 
is  to  be  directed  to  a  point  directly  south-east,  for  instance. 
Well,  the  Scorpion  rises  here,  and  accordingly  the  mariner 
keeps  this  constellation  continually  in  his  eye,  even  after  it 
is  high  in  the  heavens.  The  compass-card  also  is  marked  in 
accordance  with  this  system.  It  is  divided  into  thirty- two 
segments  by  lines  drawn  through  the  centre,  the  chief  of 
which  passes  through  the  north  and  south  points,  and  sepa- 
rates the  right  or  eastern  half  of  the  circle  from  the  left  or 
western.  On  the  former  are  marked  the  points  of  rising,  on 
the  latter  the  points  of  setting.  Another  important  line 
passes  through  the  east  and  west  points,  marking  the  rising 
and  setting  points  of  the  sun  at  the  equinoxes.  Then  come 
the  names  of  the  following  stars,  going  from  north  to  south: 
— 1,  Gah  or  the  north  star;  2,  Farkad  or  the  Little  Bear;  3, 
JS^adsh  or  the  Great  Bear;  4,  Naha,  corresponding  to  Cassio- 
peia; 5,  Ayuh  or  Capella;  6,  El  Udkaa,  corresponding  to  the 
Lyre;  7,  Lahemir  or  Semdk,  Bootes;  8,  Tureya,  the  Pleiades. 
Then  follows  the  east  point  and  the  southern  constellations: 
— 9,  Gauza  or  Ozi,  Orion;  10,  Mirsam,  Sirius;  11,  Eldil, 
An  tares  in  Scorpio;   12,  Akrab,  Scorpio;  13,  Hamaren  (?); 


mariner's  calendar.  301 

14,  Suhel,  Canopus;  15,  Sindibar  (?) ;  16,  Kiith,  the  south 
polar  star.  The  two  last  are  not  to  be  seen  outside  the  tropical 
zone.  The  stars  of  the  zodiac  that  do  not  correspond  with 
those  just  mentioned  are  known  only  by  the  learned. 

mariner's  calendar. 

In  calculations  relating  to  the  seasons  of  the  year,  and  the 
winds  that  are  so  regular  in  this  quarter,  the  Arab  mariners 
also  go  by  the  stars.  Their  usual  calendar,  which  perhaps 
has  never  before  been  written  down,  is  as  follows: — 

1.  Fn  nadm  es-sogheyer  or  RobeJ,  "the  little  sun,"  corresponding  to  the 
20th  or  21st  of  February.  No  skipper  will  set  sail  on  this  day,  but  will 
wait  for  the  strong  winds,  the  Husumdt,  that  blow  about  this  time.  In 
the  time  "between  the  suns"  a  calm  called  Haudl  prevails,  though  it  is 
varied  by  south-east  winds  called  asieb.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  or 
at  the  beginning  of  the  following,  strong  winds  blow  for  some  days, 
receiving  their  name  from  the  constellation  El  'Aua  that  rises  at  this 
time.  This  constellation  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  twelve  resting-points 
{mensil)  of  the  moon  according  to  the  Mohammedan  theory. 

2.  En  nadm  el  Kehir,  also  called  "the  great  sun,"  the  vernal  equinox, 
that  is,  the  20th  or  21st  March,  is  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  summer. 
The  thirty  or  forty  days  following  bring  alternately  calms  and  strong 
gusts  of  wind,  chafkat  en-nadm;  there  are  also  high  tides  at  this  time. 

3.  BufUn  et-tureya,  that  is,  the  setting  of  the  Pleiades.  Orion  and 
Sirius  also  set  about  the  same  time,  that  is,  towards  the  end  of  April. 
This  period  lasts  for  forty  or  fifty  days,  and  is  called  also  Arhaintet  es-sef, 
or  the  forty  days  of  summer;  it  corresponds  to  the  period  known  as 
Chamasin  in  the  Nile  valley.  It  is  characterized  by  frequent  calms  and 
south-east  winds. 

4.  Modelli  and  Mogelli,  literally,  "the  sinking"  and  "the  brightness 
giving,"  an  expression  originating  in  the  Nile  valley.  At  this  time  the 
date  twigs  sink,  while  the  fruits  are  forming,  and  the  latter  soon  become 
brightly  coloured.  This  period  begins  with  the  reappearance  of  the 
Pleiades  (3d  June).  Moderately  strong  north  winds  blow  at  this  time, 
and  sometimes  hot  west  winds  (the  simoom),  especially  in  the  mountains. 
The  latter,  however,  are  rare  on  the  coast,  being  intercepted  by  the 
mountains. 

5.  Tuiba,  that  is,  the  Hyades,  and  Kuvd^n,  the  horns  or  foremost  stars 
in  Orion,  now  rise,  that  is  to  say,  about  the  beginning  of  July.  North 
winds  prevail  for  twenty  days.  Then  the  whole  of  Orion  appears,  and 
there  is  about  a  fortnight  of  calms;  this  period  is  called  Gezaui,  and  is 
much  taken  advantage  of  by  the  pearl-fishers. 

6.  Time  of  the  Great  Bear  or  Wain  {Nadsh)  and  of  Sirius,  correspond- 


302  UPPER  EGYPT. 

ing  to  our  August  and  the  dog-days.  North  winds  generally  blow, 
though  there  are  a  few  calm  days  between  the  rising  of  the  third  and 
fourth  stars  of  the  Wain,  while  Canopus  {Suhel)  shows  himself.  This 
period  is  divided  into  several,  named  according  to  the  stars  of  the  "Wain 
that  rise  in  succession,  el  auelteti,  that  is,  the  two  first,  being  followed  by 
the  periods  of  Su/iSl,  and  er-raha,  that  is,  the  rise  of  the  fourth  star. 

7.  The  remaining  stars  of  the  Great  Bear,  that  is,  those  of  its  "tail,'' 
follow  in  due  order.  jEI  Chdmis,  the  fifth  star,  brings  a  calm  and  great 
heat.  The  rising  of  the  sixth  star,  Es-sadis,  corresponds  with  the  Nerus 
day  or  beginning  of  the  Coptic  year  (11th  September),  and  brings  on  a 
few  days  of  brisk,  or  often  stormy,  north  winds.  The  seventh  star 
brings  a  calm,  Haual  es-saba,  that  lasts  for  about  a  fortnight.  This 
seventh  period  corresponds  nearly  to  our  September.  During  the  whole 
two  months  governed  by  the  Great  Bear  there  are  very  low  ebb-tides; 
according  to  the  proverb,  as  the  Nile  rises  the  sea  falls. 

8.  Time  of  KaMa  (?),  corresponding  to  the  beginning  of  October. 
North  winds  generally  prevail  at  this  time. 

9.  Time  of  Lahimir,  that  is,  Bootes,  a  portion  of  October  and  a  portion 
of  November,  the  time  of  the  setting  (?)  of  the  star  just  mentioned, 
which  is  dreaded  as  a  mischievous  divinity.  At  this  time  sudden  and 
irregular  storms,  especially  from  the  east,  often  burst  forth  after  periods 
of  perfect  calm.     Thunder  and  rain  are  also  frequent. 

10.  El  Akrahiyeh.  The  Scorpion  now  appears,  and  after  this  period 
of  seven  days  follows  the  Arbaintet  esh-shita,  or  the  forty  days  of  winter, 
with  frequent  calms  and  moist  south-east  winds.  It  occupies  part  of 
November  and  part  of  December,  and  has  a  character  similar  to  the 
Arbainiyeh  of  summer. 

11.  Time  of  the  Nasr  and  Nusir,  that  is,  of  the  Lyre  and  Eagle,  in 
December  and  January.  This  is  the  chief  winter  season;  cold  cutting 
north-west  winds  {Masrlyeh)  now  blow,  alternating  with  milder  but 
often  stormy  north  winds. 

12.  Es-sdada  (?)  begins  on  the  18th  January,  the  day  of  the  "baptis- 
mal feast"  of  the  Copts,  well  known  as  the  coldest  day  of  the  year.  The 
winds  at  this  period  are  irregular,  the  north  and  cold  north-west  being 
the  most  common. 

Acquaintance  with  these  periods,  which  the  experience  of 
mariners  has  established,  is,  perhaps,  not  without  practical 
value,  even  although  the  dates  do  not  always  coincide  with 
the  phenomena  actually  observed.  Besides  the  winds  the 
mariner  has  also  to  contend  with  powerful  currents  that  defy 
calculation;  this  greatly  increases  the  difficulty  of  navigating 
the  Red  Sea.  The  currents  are  called  r)iedds,  properly  the 
name  for  "flood,"  and  it  is  common  to  speak  of  a  onedd 
yeradni  and  a  medd  shdmi,  that  is,  a  current  towards  tlie 


FISHERMEN.  303 

south  or  Yemen,  and  one  towards  the  north  or  Syria.  They 
are  always  changing.  There  are  also  currents  from  east  to 
west  and  vice  versa, 

TRAFFIC. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  the  books  of  the  sanitary 
office,  shows  the  amount  of  shipping  that  entered  the  port  of 
Koseir  in  the  year  1863-64,  when  trade  had  not  sunk  so  low 
as  it  has  since  done: — 

Vessels  under  1000  kele  (at  ^th  of  an  ardeb),         .         180 
Vessels  of  1000  to  4000  Me,  .         .         .         .         154 

Vessels  of  4000  to  12,000  kele,        ....  79 

Total,  ....         413 

Of  these  74  came  from  Yemba,  84  from  Jeddah,  64  from 
El  Wudj,  7  from  Suez,  5  from  Moilah.  Of  small  craft  123 
came  from  Gueh,  21  from  Safaga,  13  from  Abu  Munkar, 
5  from  Ras  Benas,  3  from  Suakin,  2  from  Gebel  Hassan, 
2  from  Gimse,  and  1  from  each  of  the"  following  places — 
Wadi  Gemal,  Jafatineh,  Tor,  Lassat,  Umm  Muhammed,  Tuer, 
Sheikh  Hamed,  Gad  umm  Mohammed,  Shurum,  Debah. 
The  number  of  passengers,  including  pilgrims,  was  5954. 

FISHERMEN. 

From  the  mariner  to  the  fisherman  is  but  a  step.  In 
moments  of  leisure,  and  in  the  evening,  when  he  comes  close 
in-shore,  the  mariner  casts  his  line,  and  tries  to  procure  in 
this  way  an  addition  to  his  scanty  supper.  The  fisherman, 
when  he  sails  out  to  sea  in  his  boat,  must  be  acquainted  with 
the  elements  at  least  of  the  mariner's  craft ;  and  when  he  is 
the  owner  of  a  boat  of  considerable  size  he  makes  longer  and 
shorter  runs  along  the  coast,  carries  millet  to  the  Bedouins, 
and  returns  with  a  boat-load  of  fish  and  pearl-oysters.  The 
fisherman  who  fishes  in  his  boat  in  the  bay,  and  not  far  from 
the  shore,  contents  himself  with  a  stone  for  an  anchor;  instead 
of  using  a  sail  he  rows.  If,  however,  the  wind  is  too  enticing, 
he  sometimes  erects  an  oar  as  a  mast,  and,  pulling  off  his 


304  UPPER  EGYPT. 

shirfc,  extends  it  as  a  sail;  or  he  may  take  a  small  sail  along 
with  him.  With  this  he  often  ventures  far  out  into  the  open 
sea.  His  longest  voyages  on  the  coast  are  made  by  preference 
towards  the  north,  and  he  works  his  way  northward  be- 
taking advantage  of  a  calm  or  a  south  wind,  and  also  of 
night,  when  the  sea  is  generally  quieter  than  by  day,  so  that, 
having  reached  his  destination,  he  may  be  able  to  return 
quickly  by  the  aid  of  the  north  wind.  He  does  not  care  to 
sail  to  the  south,  because  the  prevailing  north  wind  renders 
his  return  difficult  or  too  uncertain.  Accustomed  to  the 
duties  of  a  sailor,  the  fisherman  occasionally  engages  himself 
in  this  capacity  on  board  a  large  vessel,  in  order  to  repair  his 
finances,  which  his  calling  of  fisherman  alone  does  not  keep 
in  a  very  flourishing  condition.  For  as  the  tax  on  fish  is 
high  he  has  to  give  up  to  the  government  a  third  of  what 
he  obtains  by  the  sale  of  what  he  catches ;  in  stormy  times, 
too,  he  has  often  to  remain  in  enforced  idleness  for  weeks 
on  end;  and  if  he  does  make  a  large  catch  the  profit  he 
derives  from  it  is  not  very  great,  fish  being  cheap  in  the  small 
town,  especially  during  calm  weather,  when  everybody  catches 
fish  for  himself,  and  the  demand  of  the  inhabitants  is  soon 
supplied.  The  fishermen  also  maintain  that  there  is  not 
now  the  same  abundance  of  fish  as  formerly.  Except  for  the 
tax  referred  to,  fishing  is  free  to  every  one  who  understands 
the  business.  Everybody,  as  a  boy,  has  practised  the  angler's 
art  once  in  his  lifetime,  and  even  in  riper  years  the  well-to-do 
citizen,  who  at  other  times  has  nothing  in  his  head  but  buying 
and  selling,  or  it  may  be  the  soldier,  will  sometimes  feel  a 
longing  come  over  him  to  cast  a  line  once  more.  Accordingly 
he  takes  up  his  post  on  the  mole,  or  in  a  boat  in  the 
harbour,  or  on  the  edge  of  the  coral  reef,  and  sets  to  work. 
On  the  reef  there  may  often  be  seen,  especially  when  the 
lowness  of  the  tide  allows  ready  access,  whole  rows  of  fishers 
of  all  ages,  complexions,  and  conditions,  amateurs  and  profes- 
sionals, in  the  costume  of  Neptune,  that  is  to  say,  having  a 
cloth  round  the  loins  and  one  round  the  head,  the  latter 
being  the  blue  shirt  of  which  they  have  divested  their 
bodies. 


FISHERMEN. 


SOI 


When  the  fishing  is   interrupted  by  storms  at  sea  the 
fisherman  spins  thread  for  nets  and 
lines,  using  a  conical  spindle  which 
he  causes  to  revolve  by  rolling  it 
on  his  knee. 

In  spinning  stronger  cords  he 
uses  for  spools  two  longish  pieces 
of  wood  with  a  small  cross-piece 
at  top.  Sitting  on  the  ground  he 
twirls  one  spool  with  his  right 
hand  while  he  holds  the  other 
with  the  sole  of  his  right  foot,  the 
thread  passing  through  and  up 
between  the  great  and  the  second 
toe.  Round  the  knee,  which  is 
bent  at  riorht  anojles,  the  thread 
is  several  times  wound.  With 
the  left  hand  the  fisherman  twists 
the  two  strands  together.  The 
twine  for  his  nets  is  spun  in  this 
way. 

The  usual  method  of  fishing  practised  by  the  towns-people 


Black  Fisherman  making  Thread 
with  the  Spindle. 


JP^ 


Native  Fisherman  spinning  Twine. 


is  with  hooks  and  lines,  the  cast  being  made  by  the  hand 

20 


306  UPPER  EGYPT. 

alone  without  the  assistance  of  a  rod;  the  fish-eating  Bedouins, 
however,  use  the  spear.  The  bait  attached  to  the  hooks 
consists  of  fishes  of  various  sizes,  or  morsels  of  fish,  crabs, 
worms,  sea-weed,  &c.,  according  to  the  kind  that  are  being 
angled  for.  As  many  fishes  only  seize  living  prey,  the  fishes 
that  are  to  serve  as  bait  for  them  are  taken  alive  in  a  basket, 
which  hangs  over  the  side  of  the  boat  and  dips  into  the  water; 
and  if  they  are  dead,  an  attempt  is  made  by  rowing  rapidly 
to  deceive  the  predacious  fishes  by  giving  the  bait  a  plausible 
appearance  of  life.  Some  fishes  can  only  be  caught  by  night, 
but  the  usual  time  is  early  in  the  morning,  when  the  sea  is 
generally  calmer  than  at  other  times.  The  fisherman  is  afoot 
even  before  the  morning- star  in  order  first  to  provide  his  bait 
and  then  to  catch  the  right  fish  with  it.  Nets  are  much  less 
frequently  employed,  the  kinds  used  being  the  casting-net, 
ring-net,  and  trammel-net,  but  only  in  shallow  water — in  the 
harbour  or  on  the  reef  A  hoop-net,  such  as  is  often  used  in 
rivers,  is  useless  in  the  transparent  water  of  the  sea.  When 
the  splendidly-coloured,  fishes  are  seen  swimming  about  in 
multitudes  near  the  slope  of  the  coral-bank,  a  person  is  apt 
to  think  that  he  has  only  to  plunge  in  his  net,  but  he  would 
find  that  no  fish  will  enter  it.  Besides  this,  a  hoop-net  or  a 
trammel  would  soon  get  entangled  among  the  shrub-like  and 
branching  corals.  When  the  fishermen  discover  in  the  harbour 
some  spot  which  is  much  frequented  by  a  slioal  of  fish  they 
spread  a  net  between  their  boats,  while  some  proceed  to  attack 
the  shoal,  and  try  to  drive  the  fishes  against  the  net  by 
throwing  stones  at  them,  hissing,  and  making  a  noise.  The 
casting-net  is  generally  employed  from  the  shore.  Stooping 
down  close  to  the  ground  the  fisherman  lies  in  wait  for  a 
shoal  of  fish  swimming  towards  the  shore,  then  leaps  quickly 
into  the  water  and  throws  the  net,  which  is  loaded  with 
pieces  of  lead,  towards  the  fish,  so  as  to  make  it  entirely 
envelop  them.  The  ring-net  is  set  upon  the  reef  The  fishes 
that  swim  towards  the  shore  when  the  tide  is  rising  turn 
back  towards  the  deep  water  again  when  it  is  falling,  and  in 
this  way  pass  into  the  labyrinth,  the  entrance  of  which  is 
turned  towards  the  land;  entangling  themselves  in  its  mazy 


PREPAEATION   OF  THE  FISH.  SO? 

folds  they  soon  fall  a  prey  to  the  fisherman.  The  beautiful  and 
large  parrot-fishes,  in  particular,  are  caught  in  this  way,  and 
being  cut  open,  salted,  and  dried,  become  a  commercial  article. 
Some  fishes  are  also  caught  by  a  basket  with  a  funnel-shaped 
entrance  projecting  inwards  above,  and  which  allows  the  fish 
to  get  in,  but  prevents  them  from  finding  their  way  out. 
The  basket  is  baited  inside,  generally  with  dough,  and  then 
set  at  some  particular  spot. 

The  larger  marine  animals,  such  as  dolphins  and  the 
remarkable  "mermaids"  or  "sirens,"  are  caught  by  the  har- 
poon, but  people  do  not  care  much  to  kill  the  dolphins  because 
they  appear  such  amiable  animals,  and  groan  in  a  human  sort 
of  way.  The  sirens  are  cetaceous  animals  of  moderate  size, 
whose  teeth  are  prized  as  ivory,  and  their  thick  hide  as 
leather  for  sandals.  According  to  some  commentators  the 
Jewish  ark  of  the  covenant  is  said  to  have  been  made  of  the 
hide  of  this  animal.  The  preferable  way  is  to  take  them  by 
a  large  strong  net,  and  to  watch  until  they  pay  their  nocturnal 
visits  to  the  clefts  and  ravines  of  the  coral-reef,  where  they 
browse  like  cattle  upon  the  marine  herbage.  As  soon  as  one 
has  entered  a  narrow  gully  the  entrance  is  blocked  by  a 
net.  Feeling  itself  imprisoned,  the  beast  plunges  about,  but 
entangles  itself  more  and  more  in  the  net,  in  which  it  is  now 
drawn  towards  the  reef  When  brought  within  reach  it  is 
beaten  to  death,  or,  according  to  the  more  common  practice, 
drowned,  for  being  a  mammal  it  requires  to  come  to  the 
surface  every  now  and  then  to  breathe,  and  dies  if  forcibly 
kept  too  long  under  water.  But  these  animals  are  exceed- 
ingly shy  and  wary,  and  not  many  people  understand  how  to 
capture  them. 

PREPARATION   OF  THE  FISH. 

A  common  method  of  cooking  fish  is  simply  to  fry  them 
in  oil;  another  method  is  to  roast  a  whole  fish  on  the  open 
fire  without  oil  or  fat,  or  the  fishes  may  be  boiled  with  onions 
(called  seyadiyeh  or  fisherman's  food)  either  with  or  without 
rice,  but  they  are  never  simply  boiled  in  water.     The  flesh 


n08  UPPER  EGYPT. 

of  the  larger  fishes  is  also  chopped  up  and  made  into  dump- 
lings {kufta),  or  with  the  addition  of  onions  and  garlic  into 
fish  sausages  (semak  mahohi).  The  smaller  fishes,  as  sardines, 
are  packed  up  in  layers  with  salt  and  kept  until  they  have 
become  quite  tainted;  when  in  this  state  they  are  highly 
prized  by  many  and  considered  very  wholesome  and  ap- 
petizing food.  Fish  that  have  been  dried  and  salted  are 
either  boiled  or  are  eaten  raw,  when  they  are  as  hard  as  stone. 
Fishes  that  have  peculiar  shapes,  such  as  globe-fish,  sharks, 
rays,  and  eels,  are  an  abomination  to  the  inhabitant  of  the 
town,  who  can  easily  get  other  sorts;  the  ichthyophagous 
Bedouin,  on  the  other  hand,  prefers  these  as  being  cheaper 
and  sells  the  dearer  sort.  The  flesh  of  the  sea-cow,  being 
that  of  a  mammal,  rather  resembles  beef  than  fish,  and  is 
readily  eaten  by  the  Moslimin  although  it  has  not  been 
slaughtered  secundum  artem.  For,  says  the  doctor  of  the  law, 
everything  that  comes  out  of  the  sea  is  fish,  and  may  law- 
fully be  eaten  without  being  slaughtered  in  the  proper  way. 
The  flesh  of  dolphins  and  turtles  is  similarly  treated.  Most 
fishes  collect  in  shoals  at  the  spawning  season,  and  are  then 
taken  in  multitudes,  especially  a  number  of  those  of  the 
mackerel  and  tunny  kind.  They  often  come  in  such  vast 
shoals  that  a  Greek,  for  instance,  who  understood  better  how 
to  catch  and  cure  them  might  drive  a  thriving  trade.  The 
native  of  the  country  knows  no  other  method  of  preserving 
them  than  the  rude  methods  of  drying  and  salting  already 
mentioned. 

OTHER  MARINE  ANIMALS  MADE  USE   OF. 

The  Eed  Sea  is  very  rich  in  invertebrate  animals,  but  of 
this  class  of  products  it  is  only  the  pearl-oyster  and  the  black 
coral  that  are  made  any  use  of,  except  now  and  again  by  a 
European  naturalist,  or  perhaps  a  wandering  Greek  trader. 
The  natives  seldom  trouble  their  heads  about  such  things.  The 
only  marine  animals  used  as  food  are  the  gigantic  Tridacna, 
large  molluscs  of  the  genus  Stromhus,  and  others  of  that  of 
Pteroceras.     These  are  gathered  on  the  reef  by  Bedouin 


OTHER  MARINE  ANIMALS  MADE  USE  OF.  309 

women,  who  boil  and  eat  them  themselves,  or  sell  them  to  the 
merchants  of  the  place,  and  thus  they  reach  the  Nile  valley. 
It  is  only  the  bodies  of  the  animals  boiled  and  dried  that  are 
met  with  as  articles  of  commerce,  and  very  indigestible  these 
fleshy  lumps  are.  The  eating  of  any  others  of  the  invertebrate 
animals  uncooked,  such  as  oysters,  mussels,  sea-urchins  (the 
ovaries  of),  limpets,  cuttle-fishes,  crabs,  and  even  the  lobster 
elsewhere  so  highly  esteemed,  is  regarded  by  the  Moham- 
medans, and  generally  also  by  the  Christians  of  the  place,  as 
a  barbarous  practice,  and  one  of  which  only  the  unclean 
Frank  is  capable,  while  the  flesh  of  hyenas — slaughtered  in 
accordance  with  the  rules  on  the  Koran — is  eaten  without 
remark.  However,  these  opinions  or  prejudices  regarding 
the  value  of  animal  foods  are  mostly  of  a  local  nature,  crabs, 
and  even  the  man-murdering  shark,  being  eaten  every  day 
at  other  places  on  this  sea;  just  as  in  the  Nile  valley  field 
mice  are  at  some  places  looked  upon  as  dainties  (they  were 
so  also  among  the  Komans),  while  at  others  their  flesh  is 
regarded  with  disgust. 

To  pay  money  for  mere  rarities  is  considered  ridiculous  by 
the  inhabitants,  though  the  pilgrims  purchase  some  pretty 
shells  as  souvenirs,  namely,  porcelain  shells  {Gy'prcea),  oliva 
shells,  cone  shells  (Conus),  and  the  beautiful  Pharaoh's  shell 
{Monodonta  Pharaonis).  The  well-known  Triton's-horn 
shell  is  blown  as  a  horn  by  jugglers  and  merry- andrews,  as 
well  as  used  for  holding  water,  the  shells  of  the  CyjJrcea 
anulus  are  commonly  used  as  counters  in  games,  the  valves 
of  the  tiger's  tongue  shell  (Lucina  tigerina)  as  castanets 
for  girls.  Large  quantities  of  the  Columbella  mendicaria  are 
collected  on  the  reef — generally  by  Bedouin  children — and 
being  sold  to  the  merchants  of  the  place  are  sent  in  bagfuls  to 
the  Soudan,  where  they  are  used  for  necklaces,  and  have  a 
money  value.  In  this  quarter  shells  are  worn  as  ornaments 
only  by  children,  especially  little  Bedouin  girls;  but  they  are 
frequently  hung  about  children,  and  animals  also,  as  amulets. 
The  opercula  of  univalves  are  of  some  commercial  importance, 
being  burned  by  way  of  incense  when  spells  and  incantations 
for  summoning  spirits  are  employed,  the  smell  being  supposed 


310 


UPPER  EGYPT. 


to  attract  them.  The  thick  chalky  operculum  of  the  round- 
mouthed  shell  (Turho)  is  laid  upon  scorpion  stings.  Sponges 
also  are  articles  of  trade,  but  their  quality  is  inferior,  and  they 
cannot  compete  with  those  of  the  Mediterranean.  They  are 
gathered  on  the  reef,  and  are  then  washed  and  macerated  by 
being  buried  for  some  time  in  the  sand.  The  use  of  the 
sponge,  however,  is  unknown  in  Egypt,  the  inner  bark  of  the 
palm  being  employed  instead.  The  red  organ-coral  is  some- 
times collected  by  Greeks;  it  is  said  to  serve  as  a  colouring 
material  for  painting  houses.  Blocks  of  the  kind  of  coral 
that  forms  reefs  are  frequently  used  as  building  material  in 
the  coast- towns,  as  it  is  easier  to  carry  them  from  the  sea 
than  to  transport  stones  from  the  mountains. 


THE  PEARL-FISHERY. 
The  pearl-fishery  is  an  industry  of  some  considerable  im- 


Vessel  used  in  the  Pearl-fishery. 

portance.  It  is  not  a  government  monopoly,  being  free  to 
every  one,  but  on  the  goods  being  landed  the  customary 
import  duty  of  8  per  cent,  on  the  value  must  be  paid;  a  cer- 
tificate to  this  eiFect  is  then  given,  and  must  be  shown  when 


THE  PEARL-FISHERY.  311 

the  goods  are  taken  to  Cairo  and  otlier  important  marts  as 
well  as  when  shipped  at  Alexandria  for  exportation  to  Europe. 
The  pearl-fishery  is  almost  exclusively  carried  on  by  Arabic 
Bedouins,  who  have  settled  at  various  parts  of  the  coast  as 
well  on  the  African  as  on  the  Asiatic  side.  The  chief  place 
where  the  trade  in  pearl  shells  and  pearls  is  carried  on  is 
Jeddah ;  but  Koseir  also  is  not  without  importance  in  this 
respect. 

In  the  middle  of  March  or  beginning  of  April,  when  the 
atmosphere  and  the  sea  have  become  sufficiently  warm  to 
allow  of  diving  being  carried  on,  the  Bedouins  start  with 
their  light  barks  and  a  number  of  hu7ns  or  canoes,  and  pro- 
ceed north  and  south  to  places  which  they  know  to  be  pro- 
ductive. The  crews  mainly  consist  of  black  slaves,  three  or 
four  to  each  vessel,  the  owner,  and  another  Bedouin  or  two, 
also  going  along  with  them  in  order  to  superintend  and  direct 
The  vessel  takes  shelter  in  one  of  the  numerous  sherms  or 
harbours.  The  divers  seat  themselves  in  the  canoes,  which, 
being  easily  capsized,  cannot  carry  more  than  two  men;  but 
they  are  skilfully  managed  with  the  oar,  which  terminates  in 
a  circular  plate.  For  diving  and  navigating  the  canoe,  the 
one  thing  needful  is  calm  water.  Those  engaged  in  the  busi- 
ness accordingly  take  advantage  of  the  periods  marked  as 
calm  in  the  calendar  already  given.  The  first  and  chief 
fishing  season  is  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  end  of  May 
— En-nadm  el  kebir  and  DufiXn  et-tureya.  In  the  windy 
periods  following  the  vessels  return  and  disembark  their 
take,  which  is  mostly  sold  at  once.  The  second  fishing  season 
is  the  calm  period  Gezdui  in  the  end  of  July,  and  that  of 
Nadsh  in  August;  the  third  is  the  time  of  Lahemir  in  October. 
The  last  two  are  very  far  behind  the  first  in  productiveness. 
In  the  winter  months  the  fishery  ceases  altogether.  The 
best  time  of  the  day  is  the  quiet  early  morning.  The  diver 
in  his  canoe  then  peers  down  into  the  depths,  and  perhaps 
assists  his  vision  by  dropping  a  little  oil  on  the  surface 
of  the  water — hence  these  vessels  always  carry  a  supply 
of  oil  with  them.  The  pearl  shells  {Meleagrina  margari- 
tifera)  are  found  between  the  corals,  to  which  they  are 


312  UPPER  EGYPT. 

attached  by  their  byssus,  the  smaller  sized  ones  also  on 
the  reef,  the  larger  in  deep  water  on  the  slope  of  the 
reef,  and  in  front  of  it.  They  have  accordingly  to  be 
brought  to  the  surface  by  diving,  in  which  these  Bedouins, 
and  more  particularly  their  black  slaves,  displa}^  an  extra- 
ordinary dexterity,  using  no  apparatus.  As  soon  as  the  diver 
spies  a  shell  he  leaps  into  the  water,  swims  downwards  head 
foremost,  tears  off  the  shell,  and  swims  up  again  with  his 
booty  in  his  hand.  When  the  shell  is  situated  at  a  great 
depth  he  often  hangs  a  weight  to  his  feet  in  order  to  get  down 
more  quickly;  this  he  throws  off  immediately  he  is  at  the 
bottom,  and  he  either  swims  up  himself  or  is  drawn  up  by 
the  cord  attached  to  the  weight.  These  divers  render  the 
greatest  services  in  recovering  packets  of  money  and  other 
articles  that  have  been  lost  through  shipwrecks,  they  can 
even  employ  the  crow-bar  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  enable 
them  to  get  things  out  of  narrow  crevices  in  the  rocks  or 
similar  positions,  when  the  spot  where  they  have  sunk  is  in 
some  degree  known. 

But  to  attain  this  skill  they  must  practise  diving  from 
their  youth  up.  The  Bedouins  are  too  fond  of  their  comfort 
to  dive  themselves,  and  therefore  train  their  slaves  to  it, 
whom  they  buy  when  boys  and  often  treat  with  great  cruelty 
until  they  learn.  The  slave,  while  still  new  to  the  work, 
will  be  shown  a  shell  at  the  bottom  and  told  to  fetch  it.  If 
he  does  not  bring  it  up  he  is  beaten,  bound,  and  flogged,  his 
life  is  even  threatened,  and  his  scanty  food  is  his  only  reward 
when  he  brings  up  the  most  valuable  shells.  The  pearl- 
fishery  in  which  slaves  are  thus  employed  is  in  a  highly 
flourishing  state,  but  it  exhibits  one  of  the  worst  aspects  of 
slavery,  and  one  which  it  is  time  steps  were  taken  to  abolish. 

The  shells  when  collected  are  exposed  to  the  sun,  when 
the  animals  soon  die  and  the  valves  open.  The  fleshy  tissue 
is  now  detached  and  carefully  examined  to  see  if  it  contains 
any  pearls.  The  valves  are  next  separated  from  each  other 
and  heaped  up  singly  on  board  the  vessel;  for  this  reason  it 
is  seldom  that  a  fine  and  complete  specimen  of  a  pearl  oyster 
is  met  with.     A  good  pearl  is  always  a  rarity,  and  it  would 


THE  PEARL-FISHERY.  313 

not  pay  to  fish  for  pearls  alone  if  mother-of-pearl  were  not 
at  the  same  time  obtained.  The  Bedouins  know  the  value 
of  pearls  only  too  well — they  can  often  be  bought  cheaper  in 
Europe.  Here,  however,  they  may  sometimes  be  got  at  a 
low  price  in  an  underhand  way,  the  slaves  having  secreted 
them  and  sold  them  behind  their  masters'  backs.  The  yellow 
pearls,  which  are  more  highly  prized  in  the  East  than  in 
Europe,  are  said  to  belong  to  a  different  species  of  oj^ster 
— the  Meleagrina  cocca.  The  genus  Tridacna  also  produces 
pearls,  but  these  are  ill-coloured  and  worthless.  The  very 
small  pearls  are  pulverized  by  the  natives  and  used  as  eye- 
powder. 

A  rational  method  of  proceeding  is  not  to  be  expected  of 
the  Bedouins.  Thus  they  take  quite  young  shells  as  well  as 
old  ones,  since  all  add  to  the  weight  and  bring  money;  and 
though  one  person  were  inclined  to  leave  the  smaller  ones  in 
order  to  let  them  grow  larger  by  next  year,  he  might  be  sure 
that  some  one  else  would  take  them  in  the  interval.  It  is  no 
wonder  then  that  they  are  now  obtained  in  smaller  quantities 
than  formerly,  while  the  demand  for  them  has  increased.  It 
is  extremely  rare  for  the  divers  to  meet  with  injuries  from 
the  attacks  of  large  fish.  The  hammer-headed  shark  and  the 
saw-fish  are  most  dreaded. 

When  diving  cannot  be  carried  on  on  account  of  the  wind, 
the  Bedouin  occupies  the  time  in  fishing  with  the  ring-net  on 
the  reef,  the  fish  being  salted  and  dried  in  the  manner  already 
alluded  to.  Such  salted  fish  always  form  a  portion  of  the 
cargo  of  a  vessel  engaged  in  the  pearl-fishery.  Turtle-fishing 
is  also  carried  on  as  an  accessory  occupation,  the  kind  chiefly 
caught  being  the  Chelonia  imbricata,  which  affords  the  valu- 
able tortoise-shell;  sirens  also  are  harpooned  and  eaten. 

The  Bedouins  sell  their  pearl-shells  to  the  native  merchants 
and  other  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  who  follow  them  to  their 
settlements,  so  great  is  the  demand  for  their  goods.  Some 
of  them  have  a  regular  contract  with  a  merchant,  who  is 
called  their  aonil,  and  who  advances  money  to  them,  sup- 
plies them  with  rice,  corn,  &c.,  looks  after  their  business 
matters  in  the  town,  provides  lodging  for  them  when  there, 


314  UPPER  EGYPT. 

and  so  forth,  while  they  hand  him  over  at  a  low  rate  all  the 
shells  they  get.  The  merchant  sends  the  goods  on  camels  to 
the  Nile,  and  then  down  this  river  to  his  agent  in  Cairo,  or 
he  brings  them  there  himself,  where  they  are  bought  up  by 
European  wholesale  dealers.  The  Bedouins  sell  them  at  so 
much  the  hundred  or  the  thousand,  but  in  Cairo  they  are 
sold  by  weight.  Three  sorts  are  distinguished  in  commerce: — 
the  large  old  moghds,  which  have  the  layers  of  mother-of- 
pearl  very  thick,  especially  near  the  hinge;  those  of  medium 
size;  and  those  of  small  size  (adcla);  a  few  very  small  ones 
are  thrown  in  with  every  hundred.  Of  the  larger-sized  sort 
one  to  three  double  shells  weigh  an  oha  (that  is  alDOut  24-  lbs ); 
in  1874,  when  there  was  a  great  demand,  the  olca  cost  12  to 
15  government  piastres  according  to  size,  that  is  to  say, 
2s.  Qd.  to  3s.  Many  of  the  shells  have  worm-holes  bored 
through  and  through  them,  and  are  worthless.  In  other 
cases  certain  boring  worms  (?)  have  made  a  lodgment  under 
the  uppermost  layer  of  the  shell,  penetrating  from  the  border 
inwards,  and  producing  a  slight  elevation  which  is  known  as 
the  "water."  This  imperfection  is  of  little  consequence,  as 
no  perforation  is  made  through  the  shell.  If  the  mollusc  has 
been  dead  for  a  considerable  time  the  shell  loses  its  mother- 
of-pearl,  becomes  of  a  dull  chalky  appearance,  and  is  worth- 
less. Among  the  ordinary  pearl  shells  there  is  generally 
found  another  sort  with  a  bluish  border;  this  belongs  to  a 
different  species,  the  already  mentioned  Meleagrina  cocca 
(Arabic  bulbul).  It  always  remains  small,  and  affords  a 
mother-of-pearl  that  is  of  little  use. 

The  black  coral  {yusr),  which  belongs  to  the  genus  Anti- 
pathes,  is  also  obtained  by  diving,  but  with  greater  difficulty 
than  the  pearl-oyster,  as  it  is  usually  situated  in  very  deep 
water,  and  is  so  firmly  attached  that  it  requires  to  be  sawn 
off.  The  fleshy  coating  of  this  shrubby  animal-plant  is 
stripped  off,  and  the  black,  ebony-like,  horny  axis  is  converted 
by  native  turners  into  rosaries,  mouthpieces  for  pipes,  and 
the  like,  and  is  rather  high-priced.  The  red  coral  is  not  met 
with  in  this  sea. 


THE   COAST  BEDOUINS.  315 


THE    COAST    BEDOUINS. 


The  coast  Bedouins,  of  whom  mention  has  repeatedly  been 
made,  are  genuine  Semites,  pure  Arabs,  who,  coming  from 
Arabia,  have  settled  at  several  places  on  the  African  coast  of 
the  Ked  Sea.  These  settlements,  which  are  likewise  ports 
for  their  light  vessels,  are  called  Gueh  and  Safageli,  one  and 
two  days'  journey  northwards  from  Koseir.  They  seem  to 
have  existed  onty  for  two  or  three  generations,  the  oldest 
inhabitants  saying  that  they  crossed  over  from  Arabia  with 
their  fathers.  There  are  three  tribes— Absi  (plural  Abs), 
Asmi  (plural  Anasim),  and  Ireni  (plural  Irenat) — which 
prefer  to  live  apart  though  they  are  not  at  enmity  with  each 
other,  and  even  sometimes  intermarry.  The  cause  of  their 
emigration  from  Arabia  seems  to  have  had  something  sus- 
picious about  it,  since  the  Bedouins  of  Arabia  call  them 
"refuse"  (in  Arabic  achass  min  el  arah);  still  they  continue 
to  keep  up  a  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Bedouins  of  the 
Arabian  coast,  who  have  similar  settlements  there  (Gebel 
Hasan  for  instance),  and  occupy  themselves  in  the  same  way. 
Their  dialect  is  a  genuine  Bedouin  dialect  of  Arabic.  To  the 
Ababdeh  Bedouins,  however,  they  remain  strangers;  and 
intermixture  with  them  through  marriage  is  never  thought 
of,  though  they  sometimes  take  wives  from  Koseir. 

These  Bedouins  are  exclusively  engaged  in  seafaring  pur- 
suits on  the  coast,  especially  in  pearl -fishing.  Their  habits 
are  no  longer  nomadic,  they  do  not  even  keep  camels,  but 
hire  them  when  necessarj^  from  the  Ababdeh.  At  most  they 
have  a  few  sheep  and  goats,  but  these  they  do  not  take  out 
to  pasture,  but  keep  them  and  feed  them  at  home.  Their 
country  is  the  sea  and  the  coast,  and  they  are  still  so  far 
nomads  in  that  they  are  absent  from  home  a  great  part  of 
the  year.  In  the  winter  months,  however,  they  return  to 
their  native  tents  at  Gueh  or  Safageh,  where  their  families 
have  meantime  been  keeping  guard.  In  winter  they  occupy 
themselves  in  selling  their  pearl  shells,  and  in  felling  and 
conveying  in  their  vessels  to  the  market  at  Koseir  the  shora- 
wood  which  grows  luxuriantly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  their 


316  UPPER  EGYPT. 

settlements.  It  is  strange  that,  although  they  are  skilful  in 
catching  the  larger  marine  animals,  such  as  sirens,  turtles,  &;c., 
they  are  so  poor  hands  at  angling  for  fish  that  the  Ababdeh 
in  their  neighbourhood,  and  even  fishermen  from  Koseir, 
catch  fish  and  sell  them  to  them  in  exchange  for  corn,  while 
the  stranger  who  hopes  to  regale  himself  there  with  fish  is 
disappointed.  In  modern  times,  when  so  many  steamers 
have  been  wrecked  on  the  innumerable  reefs  of  the  Red  Sea, 
or  have  had  to  throw  cargo  overboard,  the  wreckage  thrown 
up  on  the  beach  has  been  a  rich  source  of  income  to  these 
Bedouins.  Through  this  and  the  fishery  for  pearl  shells, 
which  in  recent  years  have  risen  immensely  in  price,  these 
Bedouins  have  become  very  wealthy,  and  the  goldsmith  at 
Koseir  finds  his  time  more  than  taken  up  in  manufacturing 
gold  and  silver  ornaments  for  their  women. 

The  chief  food  of  these  Bedouins  is  not  millet,  as  among 
the  Ababdeh,  but  rice.  Of  this  unleavened  cakes  are  made, 
either  with  or  without  fat;  baking,  properly  so  called,  they 


Tent  of  Coast  Bedouins. 


do  not  understand.  They  also  indulge  in  flesh  meat  more 
frequently,  and  altogether  do  not  live  in  such  a  miserable 
manner  as  the  Ababdeh.  Notwithstanding  that  they  have 
adopted  sucli  a  settled  mode  of  life  they  live  like  their  fore- 
fathers exclusively  in  tents,  but  these  are  far  better,  cleaner, 
and  more  habitable  than  the  tents  of  the  Ababdeh.  The  per- 
pendicular side- walls  and  the  sloping  roof  which  are  formed  of 
a  firm  woollen  stufi*,  are  supported  by  posts  and  stretched  by 
cords.  Every  tent  has  several  divisions,  the  divan,  in  which 
the  men  meet,  being  strictly  separated  from  the  harim  or 
chamber  of  the  women. 

The  Bedouin  of  the  coast  exercises  the  genuine  Arabic 


THE  COAST  BEDOUmS.  317 

hospitality.  After  the  usual  lengthy  greeting  coffee  is 
brought  for  the  guest  as  a  first  refreshment;  but  it  would 
not  be  good  manners  to  serve  up  the  liquor  ready  made,  the 
custom  being  to  bring  the  beans  raw,  roast  them,  pound 
them,  pour  them  into  the  pot,  and  boil  them  before  the  eyes 
of  the  guest,  so  that  he  may  be  convinced  that  the  operation 
is  properly  performed. 

After  some  time  a  luncheon,  consisting,  perhaps,  of  rice  or 
sugared  pancake,  is  served  up,  and  is  eaten  of  course  in 
company  with  the  host,  who  dips  into  the  dish,  or  the  leather 
vessel  serving  as  dish,  along  with  his  guest.  When  a  visit 
has  lasted  for  some  time,  however,  the  guest,  especially  if  he  is 
somewhat  of  a  strano^er,  is  no  longer  hindered  from  consum- 
ing  his  own  provisions,  and  the  host,  though  on  his  own 
ground,  is  very  glad  to  receive  some  coffee  or  tobacco  from 
the  stranger. 

The  guest  sleeps  in  the  divan  of  the  tent,  in  which  in  cold 
weather  he  may  have  for  companions  the  slaves,  sheep,  and 
goats  of  his  host;  the. latter  sleeps  in  his  harim,  which  is 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  tent  by  a  curtain. 

Safageh  has  about  thirty,  Gueh  about  fifty  tents,  so  .that 
since  each  tent  stands  for  a  family  the  population  of  the 
former  may  be  estimated  at  100  to  150  persons,  of  the  latter 
at  150  to  200.  A  considerable  number  of  these  consist  of 
slaves,  but  the  Arabs  never  mingle  with  the  black  race. 

These  coast  Bedouins  are  skilful  navigators,  the  experience 
of  years  making  them  acquainted  with  all  the  reefs  on  their* 
portion  of  the  coast,  that  is  to  say,  between  Ras  Benas  and 
Gimsheh;  they  are,  therefore,  much  sought  for  as  pilots. 

Between  both  their  settlements  and  Koseir  there  is  also  a 
rather  active  traffic  by  land.  The  Bedouins  often  come  by 
land  to  Koseir  when  they  have  business  matters  to  arrange, 
and  the  people  of  Koseir  give  them  wheat,  rice,  fat,  and 
molasses  in  exchange  for  their  pearl  shells  or  the  plundered 
goods  of  steamers.  It  is  only  large  consignments  that  are 
sent  by  sea. 

Administratively  the  coast  Bedouins  of  Gueh  are  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  sheik  of  the  Ababdeh  at  Koseir,  while 


318  UPPER  EGYPT. 

those  of  Safageh  are  under  the  sheik  of  the  Gimsheh-Ababdeh. 
Quarrels  among  each  other,  however,  they  settle  themselves, 
and  endeavour  to  avoid  contact  with  the  government  as 
much  as  possible.  When  the  latter  adopts  any  regulation 
that  does  not  please  them  they  "go  on  strike,"  that  is,  they 
cease  to  bring  in  goods,  or  remove  to  another  part  of  the 
coast  where  they  are  out  of  reach.  We  need  hardly  mention 
that  they  do  not  practise  any  art  or  industry,  and  no  one  in 
both  settlements  can  even  read  or  write.  They  celebrate 
their  marriages  with  an  amount  of  ceremony  that  always 
attracts  guests  from  Koseir.  The  women  are  kept  out  of 
sight,  at  least  before  strangers.  The  dress  of  the  men  is  a 
white  or  3^ellow  shirt,  their  heads  being  covered  with  a  large 
brightly-coloured  cloth,  which  is  picturesquely  fastened  with 
a  woollen  cord.  The  women  wear  mantles  of  white  cotton 
or  dark  woollen  cloth. 

THE  PILGRIMAGE  TO   MECCAH. 

Ramadan  is  over,  and  men  of  all  zones  of  the  pious  world 
of  Islam  make  themselves  ready  to  set  out  on  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  sacred,  but  by  all  reports  very  sinful  city  of  Meccah, 
the  centre  of  the  world  and  of  all  worlds;  for  it  very  closely 
concerns  the  soul's  health  so  to  do.  A  tiny  branch  of  the 
great  stream  that  annually  pours  towards  that  point  also 
touches  our  little  sea-port  town.  As  already  mentioned 
this  tributary  was  formerly  of  much  greater  volume;  it 
now  brings  only  a  few  hundreds  or  thousands  of  pilgrims. 
The  main  stream,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  become 
weaker  either  through  want  of  faith  or  through  the  numerous 
sanitary  obstacles  interposed  to  its  disease-pregnant  course. 
The  number  of  pilgrims  that  every  year  climb  Arafat  is  said 
to  amount  to  at  least  a  hundred  thousand,  and  if  there  are 
fewer  'than  this  the  number  is  made  up  by  angels  in  the 
guise  of  pilgrims!  But  even  the  pilgrimage,  this  grand 
institution  of  Islam,  has  not  been  able  to  withdraw  itself 
from  the  influence  of  the  age  of  steam.  The  well-to-do 
pilgrim,  instead  of  traversing  huge  deserts  in  the  midst  of 


THE   PILGRIMAGE   TO   MECCAH.  31 9 

dangers  and  difficulties,  and  voyaging  in  a  small  sailing 
vessel  for  a  month  or  more  on  the  treacherous  sea,  can  now 
have  himself  conveyed  safely  and  comfortably  on  the  wings 
of  steam,  so  as  to  arrive  close  to  his  destination  in  a  few 
days  after  leaving  his  native  land,  and  the  facilities  for  his 
return  are  equally  great.  The  old  routes  are  followed  only 
by  those  who  remain  true  to  the  old  traditions,  by  those, 
therefore,  who  go  in  solemn  procession  from  Cairo  and 
Damascus  through  the  desert,  bearing  with  them  the  arks  or 
Tnahmel,  by  those,  also,  who  are  afraid  of  the  sea,  and  by 
those  for  whom  the  land  journey  is  the  shortest  and  most 
natural.  Among  people  possessed  of  means  the  natives  of 
Upper  Egypt  are  now  almost  the  only  persons  who  take  the 
route  by  Koseir  and  Jeddah,  in  addition  to  the  pilgrims 
who  cannot  or  will  not  pay  the  expensive  steamer  fares,  and 
above  all  the  mendicant  pilgrims.  At  the  time  when  the 
pilgrims  are  going  or  returning  Koseir  is  tilled  with  foreign 
figures,  who  have  to  encamp  here  for  a  time  and  await  an 
opportunity  for  proceeding  farther.  On  the  outward  journey 
vessels  must  be  hired,  passports  vised,  and  clean  bills  of 
health  obtained,  the  baggage  must  pass  the  custom-house, 
and  a  favourable  wind  has  to  be  waited  for.  All  this  may 
occupy  several  weeks,  and  meantime  all  those  arriving  from 
the  desert  gradually  assemble  here.  When  the  "  great  pil- 
grimage" occurs,  that  is,  when  the  climbing  of  Mount  Arafat 
falls  on  a  Friday,  which,  according  to  the  Mohammedan 
method  of  reckoning  by  lunar  years,  happens  only  every 
eleven  years,  the  number  of  pilgrims  assembling  in  the  town 
is  even  yet  considerable,  since  the  pilgrimage  is  then  con- 
sidered specially  blessed  and  the  number  of  pilgrims  is  much 
larger  than,  in  other  years.  The  town  is  now,  as  formerly, 
converted  into  a  great  pilgrim  camp.  On  the  return  journey, 
also,  the  crowding  is  often  great  when  a  number  of  vessels 
arrive  at  once  and  there  are  not  enough  camels  to  carry  the 
pilgrims  farther.  On  such  occasions  there  is  often  a  scarcity 
both  of  water  and  provisions. 

At  these  times  there  is  a  wonderful  medley  of  races  in  the 
town.     Here  is  the  thrifty  Fellah  for  instance;  he  loves  to 


320  UPPER  EGYPT. 

travel  along  with  his  whole  family — wife,  mother,  grand- 
mother, child,  and  child's  child,  down  to  the  infant  at  the 
breast,  all  accompany  him.  With  the  exception  of  his 
house  and  land,  which  he  leaves  to  be  attended  to  by  his 
brother,  cousin,  or  neighbours,  he  takes  the  whole  of  his 
goods  with  him.  His  wife  cooks  his  edibles  for  him,  which 
are  the  produce  of  his  own  fields  and  are  carried  with  him  in 


Fellah  Pilgrims  at  Koseir. 

sacks;  for  the  provisions  of  the  market  he  never  longs:  they 
cost  money.  He  also  takes  his  own  camels  and  fodder  along 
with  him  if  possible,  one  of  them  carrying  his  whole  family 
in  a  kind  of  frame  fastened  across  its  hump;  he  builds  his 
grain  bags  round  about  him  in  the  manner  of  a  tent,  and  thus 
avoids  paying  for  lodgings;  he  does  everything  for  himself, 
and  thus  the  expense  of  the  journey  is  to  him  by  no  means 
extraordinary.  The  Fellah  pilgrim  has  usually  enough  for 
the  needs  of  the  journey,  and  does  not  beg  unless  he  has 
lost  his  money  by  the  way  or  travels  as  a  dervish.     His 


THE   PILGRIMAGE  TO  MECCAH.  321 

behaviour  is  generally  decorous.  Until  late  in  the  night  the 
Fellah  women  incessantly  fill  the  town  with  a  peculiar 
monotonous  pilgrim  song  expressive  of  their  longing  after 
the  Prophet  and  the  holy  places. 

More  simple  in  style  is  the  Takruri  or  free  negro  from 
Darfur,  Kordofan,  and  Takru,  from  the  heart  of  the  Soudan, 
and  the  farthest  west  where  Islam  prevails.  He  has  seized  his 
pilgrim  staff  earlier  than  the  other  pilgrims,  years  ago  indeed, 
and  wanders  towards  the  rising  sun  almost  naked,  without 
money,  without  baggage,  and  on  foot.  He  receives  his  daily 
bread  from  the  gracious  God,  that  is,  he  begs,  or  he  hires 
himself  out  for  some  time  as  a  labourer.  Thus  he  moves 
slowly  onwards  farther  and  farther,  always  on  foot;  even  the 
long  and  arid  desert  does  not  frighten  him  in  his  strength 
and  health  that  nothing  can  impair.  Others  travel  in  com- 
panies accompanied  by  their  wives,  who,  like  the  gypsies, 
carry  their  children  in  a  sack  on  their  backs.  Thus  they 
march  into  the  town,  singing  their  la  ilah  ill  Allah  to  a 
Soudan  melody,  and  the  women  quavering  a  Soudan  air. 
The  first  visit  they  make  is  usually  to  the  governor,  who 
assigns,  them  the  court  of  a  mosque  as  the  place  of  their 
sojourn.  They  have  also  had  for  a  long  time  an  agent  among 
the  citizens  of  the  town,  a  "sultan"  who  attends  to  them, 
and  in  return  receives  from  each  a  small  tribute.  These 
blacks  all  beg,  create  a  great  deal  of  disturbance,  and  not 
unfrequently  rise  against  the  authorities.  At  night  they 
amuse  themselves  in  the  fore -court  of  the  mosque  with 
strange  dances,  which  have  something  of  a  religious  character 
and  correspond  to  the  zikrs  of  the  Arabs,  but  appear  to  be  a 
combination  of  the  old  heathen  dances  with  these.  The  black 
ladies,  who  by  no  means  seek  to  conceal  their  charms,  also 
take  part  in  it  and  mingle  their  quavers  in  the  barbaric  airs 
of  the  Soudan.  On  such  evenings  there  are  always  a  few 
who  fall  into  convulsions,  for  the  devil  is  always  inclined  to 
take  possession  of  the  bodies  of  the  blacks.  The  domesticated 
black  slaves  of  the  town  also  execute  wild  Soudanic  dances 
from  time  to  time,  in  which  they  rage,  stamp,  bellow,  and 
beat  drums,  but  all  in  harmlessness.     Eich  people  do  not 

21 


322  UPPER  EGYPT. 

come  so  often  from  the  Soudan,  especially  from  Darfur. 
Suakin  is  the  chief  place  where  the  Soudanese  take  ship 
to  go  across.  The  Moghrebins,  that  is,  the  inhabitants  of 
North-west  Africa,  who  have  strayed  here  from  Marocco, 
Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  the  Sahara,  are  also  a  crew  of  sordid 
beggars.  The  classically  handsome  figures  of  the  Bedouins 
of  Algeria  are  less  seldom  seen,  with  their  clear  skins,  their 
blaziijg  eyes,  their  sharply-cut  profile,  their  white  woollen 
mantles,  and  their  hoods  closely  wrapped  round  their  heads. 
Their  government  (the  French)  does  not  allow  them  to  wander 
without  means  into  the  wide  world  to  become  a  burden  upon 
their  fellow-men;  on  the  outward  journey  it  is  said  they  have 
to  leave  a  portion  of  their  travelling  money  at  the  French 
consulate  in  Egypt,  in  order  that  they  may  have  something 
to  fall  back  upon  on  their  homeward  journey.  The  barbaric 
governments  of  the  other  Mohammedan  provinces  of  North- 
west Africa  have  never  thought  of  such  a  thing.  The  pil- 
grims from  these  regions  set  out  either  without  means  or 
take  an  insuflScient  sum  with  them,  which  is  spent  on  the 
way  or  at  an}?-  rate  at  the  gold-absorbing  holy  places,  and  if 
not  all  spent  still  on  their  way  back  they  generally  live  by 
begging.  Besides  begging  many  of  the  Moghrebins  make 
something  by  conjuring,  writing  curative  mottoes  and  talis- 
mans, prophesying,  astrology,  and  other  mystic  arts.  In 
these  matters  the  greatest  confidence  has  long  been  placed  in 
a  "Moghrebi;"  it  is  only  the  learned  Fellati  of  the  Soudan, 
''whose  hand-writing  is  blessed"  that  can  rival  him.  These 
Moghrebins  are  a  quarrelsome,  dangerous,  and  disorderly 
crew,  dreaded  by  other  people,  and  difficult  to  keep  within 
bounds.  Their  devotional  exercises  or  zikrs  are  still  more 
barbarous  than  those  of  the  negroes;  the  pious  frenzy  to 
which  they  excite  themselves  when  practising  them  is  not 
always  harmless;  and  it  sometimes  happens  that,  in  open  day 
and  in  the  public  street,  they  seize  a  lamb,  tear  it  to  pieces 
with  their  teeth  like  beasts  before  it  is  quite  dead,  devour 
the  still  palpitating  heart,  drink  the  warm  blood,  and  chew 
the  tough  fibres  of  the  raw  meat ! 
'    Besides  these  main  contingents,  the  misery  of  all  the  rest 


THE  PILGRIMAGE  TO  MECCAH.  323 

of  the  Mohammedan  east  meets  here ;  the  Turk,  still  proud 
in  his  poverty,  the  broad- cheeked,  thin-lipped  Tartar  or 
Daghestani,  the  Bokharian,  the  "Suleimani,"  or  East-Iran- 
ian (?),  the  well-bred  and  talkative  Syrian,  the  native  of 
Mesopotamia  (Aerak),  the  Caramanian  or  Anatolian,  even 
the  meagre  brown-skinned  Mohammedan  Hindu,  but  seldom 
the  heretical  Persian.  The  Persians  have,  however,  a  consul  at 
Koseir,  who  every  Friday  hoists  the  Persian  flag.  It  is  only 
the  Persians  who  are  regarded  as  heretics,  being  Shiites,  all 
the  other  peoples  are  orthodox,  and  the  Mussulman,  looking 
at  the  state  of  matters  among  the  Christians,  is  extraordi- 
narily proud  of  this  uniformity  of  faith,  though  certainly  it 
has  not  always  existed  in  the  lands  of  Islam. 

Many  of  these  pilgrims,  whose  route  should  be  quite  dif- 
ferent, come  this  way  in  order  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Jeru- 
salem, the  third  sacred  place  of  pilgrimage;  this  is  often  done, 
for  instance,  by  the  Christian  inhabitants  of  Abyssinia  and 
the  Jews  of  Yemen.  Others,  however,  are  simply  carried 
away  by  the  stream,  and  come  here  without  being  able  to  say 
why  and  wherefore.  Gay  and  well  supplied  with  money  at 
their  departure,  they  land  like  a  wreck  cast  up  on  the  shore. 
Their  travelling  companions,  protectors,  or  relatives  have  been 
lost  in  the  crowd  and  confusion,  or  have  been  carried  off  by 
death,  and  those  left  behind  now  attach  themselves  to  some 
band  or  other,  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  continue 
their  journey,  even  though  it  be  by  a  round-about  way.  The 
fatigues  undergone,  the  over-crowding,  the  dirt,  exposure, 
hunger,  thirst,  and  sunstroke  every  year  cause  a  number  of 
diseases,  particularly  dysentery,  typhus,  intermittent  fever, 
and  virulent  ulcers,  often  also  deadly  epidemics  to  which 
many  thousands  succumb.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
number  of  persons  who  have  died  on  the  pilgrimage  since  the 
beginning  of  Mohammedanism  is  equal  to  the  whole  number 
of  Moslimin  at  present  living  (200,000,000  ?).  The  sick  and 
the  aged  are  often  cruelly  left  behind  in  the  burning  desert 
by  their  own  people,  and  die  of  hunger  and .  thirst  with  no 
one  near  them.  The  great  pilgrim  caravan  moves  pitilessly 
onwards,  and  whoever  remains  behind  is  plundered  by  the 


824  UPPER  EGYPT. 

Bedouins,  who  are  always  lying  in  wait.  But  the  Moslim 
who  dies  on  the  pilgrimage  thinks  little  of  death,  being  sure 
that  he  will  immediately  enter  paradise. 

When  the  holy  places  have  been  visited,  the  pilgrims  who 
have  money  return  home  by  steamer  or  with  the  pilgrim- 
caravan;  those  who  are  to  go  by  way  of  Koseir  embark  in 
native  sailing  vessels  at  one  of  the  Arabian  sea-ports,  such 
as  Jeddah,  Yemba,  or  Wudj.  There  the  begging  pilgrims 
also  gather  in  crowds,  and  the  respective  governments  compel 
every  vessel  that  sets  sail  to  take  on  board  a  quantum  of  this 
troublesome  crew.  These  pilgrim- vessels  are  truly  a  wretched 
sight,  no  better  than  a  slave  vessel.  A  comparatively  small 
vessel  will  carry  80  to  120  persons;  men,  women,  and  children, 
the  sick  and  the  healthy,  animals  and  goods,  are  all  packed 
and  jumbled  together  in  a  disgusting  manner,  and  the  voyage 
in  this  confined  space  often  lasts  for  several  weeks.  No 
wonder  that  death  always  reaps  a  rich  harvest  here.  The 
dead  are  thrown  overboard  as  soon  as  possible.  The  govern- 
ment provides  the  begging  pilgrims  with  a  supply  of  food 
enough  to  keep  them  from  starvation,  namely,  biscuit  or 
black  bread  simply  dried,  and  during  the  whole  of  the  long 
voyage  they  have  nothing  but  this  to  live  on,  unless  such  of 
the  passengers  as  are  better  off  contribute  something  from 
their  stores. 

Arrived  at  the  port  of  Koseir  these  wretched  begging 
pilgrims,  half  starved  and  parched  with  thirst,  pour  through 
the  streets  and  lanes  of  the  town,  and  importunately  demand 
an  alms,  knocking  at  the  doors  almost  in  a  threatening 
manner.  At  the  same  time  they  sing  a  begging  formula  they 
have  learned,  some  of  them  accompanying  themselves  on  a 
primitive  lute  or  dancing  in  their  wonderful  tattered  costumes* 
and  holding  in  their  hand  their  bread-bag  or  a  water-vesseh 
such  as  a  cocoa-nut  shell.  They  pass  the  night  in  the  street, 
on  the  floor  of  a  mosque,  or  in  some  ruinous  shop.  The  sick 
lie  down  there  too,  and  receive  food  and  drink  from  compas- 
sionate souls.  It  is  only  when  they  are  reduced  to  extremities 
that  they  make  up  their  minds  to  allow  themselves  to  be 
taken  to  the  hospital,  where  they  are  cared  for,  and  receive 


THE  PILGRIMAGE  TO  MECCAH.  825 

more  suitable  food  and  medicine;  many  have  to  be  brought 
there  by  force. 

But  all  the  begging  pilgrims  are  not  really  so  poor.  Many 
■of  them  may  be  very  well-to-do  citizens  at  home,  but  here 
they  act  the  begging  pilgrim,  partly  from  avarice,  partly  to 
pass  themselves  off  for  persons  of  superior  holiness.  When  an 
inspection  is  made  by  the  custom-house  officers,  or  when  one 
of  these  begging  pilgrims  has  died,  it  is  by  no  means  rare  for 
s,  roll  of  fine  gold  pieces  to  1be  found  in  his  wallet,  or  sewed 
up  in  his  clothes,  or  even  in  a  bag  between  his  thighs,  though 
he  had  previouslj^  affirmed  his  poverty  with  the  most  solemn 
oaths.  At  the  same  time  he  will  be  clad  in  the  filthiest  rags, 
he  will  hunger  and  starve  along  with  his  companions  for 
weeks,  till  reduced  to  a  skeleton,  will  allow  himself  to  be  fed 
^nd  carried  gratis  by  the  government,  and  will  live  the  whole 
journey  by  begging. 

The  authorities  never  think  of  checking  these  parasitical 
on-hangers  on  the  body  of  pilgrims,  they  rather  encourage 
them.  To  be  sure  there  is  a  clause  in  the  sanitary  regulations 
according  to  which  the  authorities  can  forbid  the  departure  of 
persons  entirely  unprovided  with  means;  but,  like  most  ordi- 
nances that  do  not  refer  to  money  and  taxation,  it  exists  only  on 
paper.  Such  begging  pilgrims  are  not  sent  back  before  setting 
sail,  but  are  imposed  upon  the  first  and  most  convenient 
vessel  in  order  that  the  town  may  be  rid  of  them  as  soon  as 
possible.  On  the  return  journey,  if  they  are  put  in  quarantine, 
they  are  supplied  with  food  and  water;  on  the  journey  through 
the  desert  to  the  Nile  valley  they  are  handed  over  in  half- 
dozens  to  the  camel-drivers  so  that  they  may  ride  by  turns, 
<ind  for  this  the  government  pays  the  camel-drivers,  giving 
the  pilgrims  also  a  supply  of  biscuit  to  take  along  with  them. 
The  sick  are  cared  for  in  the  hospital  free.  Sometimes,  when 
the  public  health  seems  to  demand  it,  and  in  order  to  guard 
a,gainst  epidemics,  the  government  sends  steamers  of  its  own 
to  fetch  these  beggars  from  the  Holy  Land,  and  to  convey 
them  through  the  Suez  Canal  to  their  own  countries. 

A  strange  class  of  men  are  every  year  to  be  met  with 
among  the  crowd  of  pilgrims  of  all  nations;  these  are  the 


326  UPPER  EGYPT. 

travelling  dervishes.  Travelling,  and  making  pilgrimages  in 
particular,  is  their  profession.  They  are  always  alone,  with- 
out family  and  without  companions.  Many  appear  regularly 
every  year  at  the  time  of  the  pilgrimage,  and  continue  to  do 
so  all  their  lives.  A  few  of  them  are  learned  men,  and  are 
often  taken  under  protection  and  kept  for  weeks  and  months 
by  wealthy  and  God-fearing  individuals  with  a  thirst  for 
knowledge,  till  they  go  to  some  other  place  to  receive  similar 
treatment.  Others  are  a  kind  of  mendicant  monks,  who- 
dress  themselves  in  bizarre  costumes,  for  example,  a  mantle 
consisting  of  an  immense  number  of  many  coloured  patches- 
sewed  together,  with  a  towering  head-covering  or  a  cap  some- 
thing like  a  Jacobin's  cap.  A  great  many  let  the  hair  of  their 
head  grow  long  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from  other 
Moslimin,  and  wear  a  patriarchal  beard;  many  go  almost 
naked.  They  also  exhibit  some  strange  customs  and  peculi- 
arities. For  instance,  one  of  them  will  run  up  and  down  the 
streets  without  uttering  a  word  and  without  any  object; 
another  carries  a  club  and  beats  his  breast  with  it;  a  third  from 
time  to  time  shouts  out  the  confession  of  faith,  or  the  call  to- 
prayer,  or  a  chapter  of  the  Koran;  a  fourth,  without  any  reason, 
from  time  to  time  works  himself  into  an  ecstasy  (as  in  the  zikrs) 
by  repeating  the  name  of  Allah  a  thousand  times,  while  he 
foams  at  the  mouth  and  his  eyes  water;  a  fifth  leads  a  crowd 
of  children  through  the  streets,  with  a  flag  in  his  hand,  shout- 
ing out  something  or  other  which  the  children  repeat  in 
chorus.  Many  act  the  buffoon,  and  play  all  sorts  of  foolish 
pranks,  but  always  in  their  sacred  dresses.  They  do  not  take 
money,  but  only  food  and  drink,  in  which  they  are  very 
moderate;  some  of  them  gnaw  bones  they  find  on  the  street, 
and  invite  the  passers-by  to  share  with  them.  These  persons 
venture  to  take  great  liberties,  since  they  have  a  reputation 
for  sanctity,  and  are  regarded  as  valis.  They  seat  themselves- 
boldly  in  the  place  of  honour  in  the  divan  of  the  rich,  and 
high  and  low  eagerly  seek  their  blessing.  Since  they  enjoy  the 
special  grace  of  God,  God  has  denied  them  in  this  world  the 
ordinary  human  reason,  they  are  therefore  without  sin,  and 
will  be  favoured  in  the  next  world;  moreover,  they  can  work 


p   ;. 
*^^  >  > 


THE  PILGKIMAGE  TO  MECCAH.  327 

miracles  even  in  this  world  or  after  their  death.  Generally 
speaking  they  do  no  one  any  harm,  though  their  jokes  are 
sometimes  disagreeable  enough.  These  men  would  afford  an 
interesting  study  for  a  doctor  of  the  insane.  Their  condition 
is  that  of  a  peculiar,  harmless  lunacy,  or  partial  simplicity, 
perhaps  caused  by  long-continued  ecstacies.  Some  also  are 
possibly  mere  pretenders. 

The  pilgrim  season,  however,  does  not  bring  merely  sorrow 
and  wretchedness;  there  is  no  want  of  amusements  and  sights 
worth  seeing.  It  is  very  interesting  to  watch  the  crowd  of 
people  collected  from  all  the  zones  of  the  earth,  to  note  their 
behaviour  and  their  dresses,  to  listen  to  their  narratives  and 
adventures,  to  go  through  the  inns  and  the  areas  now  con- 
verted into  encampments,  in  doing  which  we  may  have  an 
opportunity  of  looking  more  deeply  into  the  large  oriental 
eyes  of  many  a  foreign  child  of  the  fair  sex;  for  when  on  the 
journey  they  are  not  so  strict  in  veiling  themselves. 

We  examine  also  the  foreign  utensils  and  goods  which 
come  to  light  under  the  inspection  of  the  customs- officers,  or 
which  the  pilgrim  sells  for  a  trifle  through  the  broker — if  he 
does  not  act  as  auctioneer  himself — in  order  that  he  may  be 
enabled  to  continue  his  journey.  Here  we  may  see  weapons, 
books,  perfumed  woods,  pieces  of  black  coral,  and  rosaries 
made  of  it  or  of  aloes  wood,  leathern  and  metal  vessels  filled 
with  water  from  the  famous  Zemzem  well,  sheets  of  pictures 
giving  views  of  the  holy  places,  packets  of  sacred  earth  from 
Meccah  or  Medinah,  dates  from  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet, 
toothpicks  and  other  relics.  Lastly,  there  meet  here  jugglers, 
athletes,  musicians,  male  and  female  dancers,  snake-charmers, 
conjurors,  astrologers,  story-tellers,  poets,  learned  men  and 
soothsayers,  retail-dealers,  and  all  kinds  of  handicraftsmen 
of  all  sorts  and  all  countries.  By  working  at  their  trades 
and  occupations  these  earn  at  least  enough  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses of  the  journey,  while  they  at  the  same  time  obtain 
the  blessing  that  belongs  to  those  who  have  made  the 
pilgrimage. 


328  UPPER  EGYPT. 

QUARANTINE. 

Closely  connected  with  the  pilgrimage  is  the  institution 
called  quarantine.  In  the  Egyptian  ports  of  the  Red  Sea 
there  were  quarantine  officers  long  ago,  every  vessel  had  to 
subject  itself  to  a  sanitary  inspection,  and  in  the  time  of  epi- 
demics, such  as  cholera,  typhas,  or  small-pox,  universal  quar- 
antine was  imposed.  But  sanitary  arrangements  on  the 
whole  were  incomplete,  on  the  opposite  coast  people  would 
hear  nothing  of  sanitation,  and  certificates  were  never  exhi- 
bited.  Then  came  the  cholera  year  1865.  Conveyed  from 
India  its  source,  and  brought  into  fermentation  by  the  huge 
multitude  of  people  that  were  then  engaged  in  the  ''great 
pilgrimage,"  the  disease  spread  quickly  over  the  whole  world 
in  spite  of  quarantine.  It  was  brought  to  Suez  by  returning 
pilgrims,  and  thence  travelled  northwards,  especially  to  the 
countries  on  the  Mediterranean,  as  well  as  southwards  by 
way  of  the  Nile  valley  as  far  as  the  Soudan.  After  this  evil 
year  an  international  sanitary  congress  was  held,  as  is  well 
known,  at  Constantinople,  for  the  purpose  of  consulting  as 
to  what  measures  should  be  adopted  for  guarding  against 
and  preventing  the  further  progress  of  the  devastating  disease. 
An  important  resolution  of  this  conference  to  compel  the 
pilgrims  to  travel  by  land  should  have  been  put  in  force  the 
following  year,  since  the  cholera  again  broke  out  among  the 
pilgrims,  although  with  less  virulence.  But  the  quarantine 
establishments  were  then  defective  in  their  organization,  and 
that  led  to  great  confusion.  The  Egyptian  sanitary  authori- 
ties on  the  African  coasts  were  strictly  commanded  to  compel 
every  pilgrim  vessel  to  sheer  off  and  withdraw  to  Tor  on  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  in  order  to  undergo  a  quarantine  there. 
To  support  this  command  a  division  of  Turkish  Bashi  Bazouks 
was  sent  to  Koseir.  Whether  the  order  to  sail  to  Tor  did 
not  reach  the  vessels  leaving  the  Turco-Arabic  sea-ports, 
where  a  portion  of  them  had  already  undergone  a  four  weeks' 
quarantine,  or  whether  they  intentionally  evaded  it,  we  cannot 
say,  but  at  all  events  one  day  eight  pilgrim  vessels  appeared 
at  once  in  the  harbour  of  Koseir,  crammed  with  more  than 


QUARANTINE.  329 

800  moneyless  and  starving  human  beings,  a  great  many  of 
them  sick.  With  the  passengers  in  this  shocking  state  sailing 
immediately  to  Tor  was  out  of  the  question,  a  brief  space 
must  at  least  be  granted  in  order  to  provide  them  with  a 
supply  of  provisions  necessary  for  a  voyage  which,  in  the  face 
of  the  prevailing  north  winds,  might  occupy  three  or  more 
weeks.  The  total  prohibition  against  landing  was  also  broken 
through.  But  the  pilgrims  would  have  nothing  to  do  with 
Tor,  they  would  remain  here,  however  long  they  should  be 
kept  in  quarantine.  Wringing  their  hands  some  of  them 
begged  for  compassion,  the  others  threatened.  The  provisions 
which  were  being  put  on  board  in  view  of  the  voyage  ordered 
were  partly  thrown  into  the  sea.  When  at  last  the  captains 
were  earnestly  entreated  to  set  sail,  a  general  pilgrim-revolu- 
tion arose;  the  pilgrims  bound  the  sailors  who  were  willing 
to  obey,  beat  the  captains,  cut  the  ropes,  took  possession  of 
the  boats  with  the  intention  of  landing,  or  jumped  into 
the  water  to  swim  ashore.  But  the  beach  was  already 
occupied  by  soldiers  and  watchmen,  and  the  pilgrims  who 
attempted  to  land  were  driven  back.  The  authorities,  how- 
ever, saw  the  impossibility  of  executing  the  command  of  the 
government.  To  use  firearms  against  pious  pilgrims  seemed 
a  doubtful  proceeding.  And  who  could  hinder  such  desperate 
men  from  landing  at  one  of  the  uninhabited  sherms,  and 
returning  by  land  or  penetrating  through  the  mountains  into 
the  Nile  valley. 

It  was  accordingly  resolved  to  send  a  special  messenger  by 
dromedary  to  the  nearest  provincial  town,  and  thence  to 
telegraph  the  state  of  matters  to  the  government  in  Cairo 
and  Alexandria.  This  resolution  gave  hope  and  comfort  to 
the  pilgrims,  who  now  remained  quietly  waiting.  But  the 
capital  is  a  long  way  off  in  spite  of  the  telegraph.  The  pilgrims 
had  in  the  meantime  to  get  their  food  and  drink,  and  the 
latter  especially  was  difficult  to  provide,  while  the  supply 
of  biscuits  was  soon  exhausted,  particularly  as  the  number  of 
I)ilgrims  soon  rose  to  1300  by  fresh  arrivals  of  vessels  every 
day.  During  the  whole  of  this  time  the  town  was  in  arms, 
tliere  was  a  constant  dread  lest  the  pilgrims  should  quit  their 


330  UPPER  EGYPT. 

large  fleet  and  force  their  way  into  the  town,  soldiers  and 
workmen  kept  guard  night  and  day  on  the  beach,  keeping 
watch-fires  burning  and  loudly  challenging  each  other  to 
give  the  watchword.  At  last — after  thirteen  weary  days — 
the  message  was  received  that  the  pilgrims  were  to  be  allowed 
to  land,  but  in  quarantine,  the  proper  quarantine  to  be  held 
at  Bir  Amber,  on  the  borders  of  the  Nile  valley,  whither 
they  were  to  be  brought  in  travelling  quarantine  under  an 
escort  of  soldiers.  In  the  circumstances  this  intelligence 
naturally  caused  great  joy.  The  pilgrims  were  now  at  least 
allowed  to  leave  their  prisons,  the  vessels,  for  the  dry  land. 
A  week  was  still  required,  however,  before  all  the  pilgrims 
could  be  conveyed  away  by  camels,  and  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
viding food,  and  particularly  drink,  caused  fresh  revolutionary 
scenes  every  day.  Besides  this,  more  than  seventy  sick 
persons — the  most  of  them  suflfering  from  dysentery — lay 
scattered  around  polluting  the  air,  while  fresh  cases  of  illness 
were  being  caused  by  the  piercing  rays  of  the  sun  above  and 
the  burning  sand  beneath,  for  the  quarantine  place  is  only 
fenced  round  with  ropes  and  poles,  straw  huts  having  been 
provided  only  for  the  officials  and  the  sick,  and  that  not 
without  difficulty. 

Gradually  sanitary  arrangements  grew  to  be  better  organ- 
ized. Instead  of  the  distant  Tor  the  Egyptian  sea-port  El 
Wudj,  situated  on  the  Arabian  coast,  was  chosen  as  being  in 
every  respect  the  most  suitable  quarantine  place  for  all  pil- 
grims, both  those  returning  with  the  great  caravan  by  land, 
and  those  going  by  sailing-vessels  or  steamers  to  Suez  and 
Koseir.  Every  year  during  the  time  of  the  return  of  the 
pilgrims,  quarantine  is  now  held  there  for  about  two  months 
after  the  Great  Beiram,  a  special  quarantine  commission  being 
sent  there  by  the  Egyptian  government.  If  cholera  is  not 
prevalent  it  lasts  only  five  days  as  a  quarantine  of  observa- 
tion; should  a  suspicious  case  of  sickness  occur  it  is  prolonged. 
No  vessel  that  leaves  an  Arabic  harbour,  not  even  the  Euro- 
pean steamers,  is  admitted  at  this  time  into  the  Egj^ptian 
harbours  of  Suez  and  Koseir  if  they  have  not  passed  through 
quarantine  at  El  Wudj.     At  other  times  also,  if  a  suspicious 


QUAEANTINE.  331 

illness  is  notified  from  Arabia,  quarantine  is  established  there; 
thus,  in  1874,  when  cases  of  the  plague  were  said  to  have 
occurred  in  the  country  of  Asir,  and  near  Meccah,  not  at  the 
pilgrim  season,  although  most  people  denied  the  correctness 
of  the  report,  vessels  had  for  months  to  undergo  quarantine 
for  three  weeks.  According  to  circumstances  vessels  may  be 
ordered  for  security  to  pass  through  a  short  subsequent  quar- 
antine in  the  Egyptian  ports,  or  they  may  be  discharged  at 
once  after  a  regular  inspection  by  a  medical  man.  At  all  the 
principal  ports  on  the  Red  Sea  there  are  now  permanent 
sanitary  officers  who  grant  regular  certificates,  and  the  pilgrim 
caravans  are  accompanied  by  government  doctors  (of  course 
Mohammedans),  who  have  to  send  in  reports  on  the  general 
state  of  health  of  those  under  their  care  to  the  supreme  sani- 
tary authorities,  and  to  take  measures  in  serious  cases.  Since 
the  terrible  time  experienced  in  1865  Meccah  itself  has  had 
a  certain  sanitary  organization;  numerous  channels,  for 
instance,  are  said  to  have  been  dug  in  order  to  carry  away 
the  blood  and  other  remains  of  the  sacrificed  animals,  the 
heaps  of  such  matters  having  formerly  polluted  the  air. 

Will  now  the  cholera  and  other  epidemics  be  prevented  in 
future  from  spreading  by  these  important  regulations?  That 
an  epidemic  may  be  confined  by  quarantine  regulations  within 
a  cordon  or  the  walls  of  a  lazaretto,  that  the  methods  of  pro- 
cedure prescribed,  such  as  fumigating  goods  and  papers  with 
aromatic  substances,  or  keeping  at  the  distance  of  a  gunshot 
from  infected  persons,  are  of  great  value  there  is  very  good 
reason  to  believe,  especially  in  the  case  of  cholera,  which,  by 
means  of  excrementitious  matters,  is  capable  of  acting  at  some 
distance.  But  to  carry  out  the  system  a  number  of  quarantine 
officials  and  doctors  are  required,  all  of  whom  are  exposed  to 
the  infection,  which  is  also  liable  to  be  conveyed  by  provision 
sellers  or  by  gossipping  friends,  not  to  mention  the  numerous 
possibilities  of  contagion  through  the  carelessness  or  corrup- 
tion of  those  appointed  to  see  the  regulations  strictly  carried 
out,  and  the  repugnance  of  the  fatalistic  Arabs,  physicians 
included,  against  all  regulations  of  the  kind.  The  only 
perfect  safeguard  against  contagion  would  therefore  be  to 


332  UPPER  EGYPT. 

prevent  all  communication  whatever  between  a  vessel  and 
the  shore,  but  of  course  this  is  impossible.  On  land  it  has 
been  found  decidedly  advantageous  to  have  several  quaran- 
tine stations,  all  of  which  must  be  passed  through,  one  after 
the  other.  The  utility  of  this  was  proved  some  years  ago 
when  the  cholera,  in  a  virulent  form,  was  spreading  from 
the  Soudan  towards  Upper  Egypt;  it  was  stopped  at  a  third 
quarantine  cordon  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Upper  Egypt 
and  did  not  invade  the  country  itself  The  detection  of  the 
disease  by  the  medical  men  is  also  a  matter  of  no  small 
difficulty.  It  is  not  easy  to  perceive  that  a  person  is  suffer- 
ing from  choleraic  diarrhoea  in  its  early  stage,  or  to  detect 
the  beginnings  of  any  disease  the  instant  a  vessel  arrives 
and  is  inspected,  particularly  as  the  new-comers  do  every- 
thing in  their  power  to  avoid  being  recognized  as  ill  and 
forced  to  go  into  quarantine.  At  the  decisive  moment  a 
sick  person  will  put  on  a  cheerful  air  however  ill  he  feels,  he 
will  even  cut  capers,  and  will  chew  a  morsel  put  into  his 
mouth  as  if  he  had  a  ravenous  appetite;  he  considers  it,  in 
short,  a  patriotic  duty  to  deceive  the  doctor  and  save  his 
companions  from  quarantine.  There  is  no  use  in  putting 
questions,  for  the  answers  are  certain  to  be  false.  To  feel 
pulse  and  skin  is  not  allowed,  and  the  general  appearance 
and  tongue  are  the  sole  remaining  criteria.  A  certain 
diagnosis,  therefore,  is  only  possible  in  cases  of  admitted 
illness. 

Still  the  value  of  quarantine  stations  is  not  to  be  denied ; 
they  impede  the  movements  and  render  slower  the  progress 
of  those  who  carry  the  disease,  which  gradually  becomes  less 
and  less  virulent,  while  by  the  isolation  of  those  attacked, 
which  can  only  be  brought  about  by  a  quarantine,  so  many 
sources  of  disease  are  kept  apart  from  the  general  body.  But 
quarantine  inflicts  severe  wounds  upon  trade  and  navigation; 
even  in  the  case  of  the  small  native  vessels  the  fees  that  fall 
to  be  paid  through  a  single  quarantine  often  amount  to  as 
much  as  100  francs,  a  large  percentage  of  the  total  returns 
of  a  voyage.  Of  course  quarantine  causes  the  government 
also  a  great  deal  of  expense,  which  is  far  from  being  covered 


QUARANTINE.  •  833 

by  the  fees.  But  why  should  the  inhabitants  of  the  mari- 
time districts,  whom  it  is  sought  to  protect,  be  exempted, 
and  the  expenses  fall  upon  the  travellers  and  mariners  already 
sufficiently  annoyed  by  quarantine?  If  the  expenses  of  quar- 
antine were  to  be  paid  by  a  general  tax  on  the  country,  the 
amount  falling  upon  each  individual  would  be  very  small. 
By  the  abolition  of  the  quarantine  fees  many  an  incentive 
to  corruption  would  be  removed  and  the  regulations  more 
strictly  observed,  for  the  Egyptian  does  not  dread  loss  of 
time  but  expense.  But  as  things  are,  quarantine  is  univer- 
sally regarded  as  an  institution  for  taxation  and  extortion, 
and  no  one  believes  that  it  is  of  any  real  value  in  preventing 
the  spread  of  epidemics. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

THE  NATUKAL  TKEASUEES  OF  THE 
EED  SEA. 

The  arm  of  sea  which  springs  from  the  great  Indian  Ocean 
and  bears  the  name  of  Red  Sea  or  Arabian  Gulf  is  a  genuine 
tropical  sea,  although  it  stretches  northwards  far  beyond  the 
tropic.  Though  it  is  separated  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
only  by  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  in  the  character  of  its  animal 
life  it  is  sharply  distinguished  from  the  former  sea,  and  only 
a  few  cosmopolitan  forms  are  common  to  both,  a  proof  that 
in  recent  epochs  at  least  there  has  been  no  communication 
between  the  two.  Recently  this  neck  of  land  has  been  cut 
through  by  the  strong  hand  of  man  and  the  waters  of  the 
north  have  been  wedded  to  those  of  the  south.  Perhaps  a 
certain  emigration  and  immigration  of  the  animals  of  both 
seas  may  take  place  in  time,  but  from  their  union  up  to  the 
present  time  nothing  of  consequence  on  this  subject  has  been 
made  known.  The  conditions  of  life  in  both  seas  are  still 
very  different,  and  the  canal  lying  between  offers  many  hin- 
drances. 

We  get  up  betimes  in  the  morning  in  order  to  observe,  in 
all  its  freshness,  the  active  life  that  prevails  in  the  warm 
and  briny  deep.  And  this  is  a  very  easy  matter  for  us;  we 
do  not  need  to  wade  in  mud  and  sand  up  to  the  middle,  nor 
do  we  require  Moses'  rod  to  lay  the  sea  dry;  we  simply  wait 
until  the  moon  passes  over  our  heads  or  that  of  our  antipodes. 
At  such  times  the  sea  sinks  a  yard  or  sometimes  two,  and 
we  can  reach  almost  dryshod  the  rocky  surface  of  the  fring- 
ing or  coast  reef,  which  here,  as  a  rule,  is  not  separated 
from  the  shore  by  a  lagoon.  Over  this  we  may  venture  a 
long  way,  as  far  as  the  edge,  indeed,  where  the  breakers  are 
raging,  without  fear  of  being  swallowed  up  like  Pharaoh  and 
his  host  by  the  billows  of  the  returning  flood. 


ON  THE  SHORE.  335 

The  naturalist  will  do  best  to  choose  the  summer  months, 
especially  those  of  the  late  summer.  "  When  the  Nile  rises 
the  sea  falls,"  says  the  inhabitant  of  these  parts.  During 
this  time,  that  is  to  say,  especially  before  and  at  the  autumnal 
equinox,  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  at  its  lowest  level  at  ebb 
tide.  During  the  winter,  on  the  other  hand,  from  October 
to  the  vernal  equinox,  the  sea  never  sinks  far  enough  (except 
about  the  New-year)  to  expose  the  whole  surface  of  the  reef, 
though  this  is  frequently  the  case  in  summer.  This  lowness 
of  level,  which  is  also  noticeable  at  high  water,  may  be  a 
consequence  of  certain  currents,  or  of  the  north  winds  that 
almost  exclusively  prevail  at  this  time,  and  drive  the  waves 
southwards;  it  may  partly  also  be  due  to  evaporation,  the 
sea  being  closely  shut  iu  by  burning  coasts,  and  having  a  dry 
and  heated  atmosphere  above  it. 

ON  THE   SHORE. 

The  sea  is  still  standing  like  a  shallow  lake  above  the 
surface  of  the  reef,  which,  with  a  breadth  of  about  a  hundred 
paces,  extends  far  along  the  shore;  the  powerless  waves, 
their  strength  being  broken  on  the  slope  of  the  reef,  beat 
against  the  fearfully  desolate  sandy  or  rocky  shore.  The  natur- 
alist, however,  finds  it  by  no  means  so  desolate;  numerous 
bones  of  vertebrate  animals,  bleached  shells,  and  branches  of 
coral  lie  about,  and  these  he  picks  up  as  he  chips  them  out  of 
the  rocks  into  which  the  might  of  the  eternal  elements  has 
baked  them.  He  has  no  intention  of  adding  these  weather- 
worn and  broken  specimens  to  his  collection,  he  wishes  to 
compare  them  with  others  which  he  will  obtain  fresh  and 
uninjured  from  the  sea.  Perhaps  some  of  the  forms  may  no 
longer  exist  as  living  forms,  and  in  this  case  they  must 
remain  in  the  collection  as  evidence  of  the  former  existence 
of  an  extinct  species.  The  shore  on  which  we  are  wandering 
is  under  the  influence  of  puzzling  forces;  it  is  rising  while 
the  sea  is  withdrawing,  as  already  mentioned  in  Chap.  IV. 
p.  234.  The  geologist  calls  this  phenomenon  "the  secular 
elevation  of  the  land.'^ 


336  UPPER  EGYPT. 

But  also  liviDg  children  of  the  sea  display  their  activity  on 
the  aiid  coast.  We  never  tire  of  watching  the  comic  behaviour 
of  the  sand  or  mouse-crabs  (Ocypoda),  which  run  about  in 
immense  numbers  on  the  sandy  beach,  especially  on  summer 
evenings.  Beyond  tide-mark,  and  often  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  sea,  but  never  so  far  as  that  the  sand  below  is 
not  moist,  they  dig  burrows  of  the  size  of  their  bodies.  They 
do  not  take  long  journeys  by  land  like  the  West  Indian  land 
crabs  {Gecarcinus).  The  holes  penetrate  for  3  or  4  feet  either 
obliquely  or  in  any  direction,  and  are  inhabited  by  a  single 
crab,  or  by  a  pair  of  the  same  or  of  different  sexes.  The  sand 
that  falls  down  as  the  animal  is  dirano^  is  carried  out  between 
one  of  the  nippers  and  an  anterior  foot,  in  which  operation 
the  hairbrush  existing  on  the  second  pair  of  feet  may  be  of 
service,  the  other  side  is  left  free  and  enables  the  animal  to 
crawl  out  of  the  hole.  On  reaching  the  entrance  the  crab 
flings  the  sand  to  some  little  distance  from  the  hole  with  a 
sudden  jerk,  and  having  performed  its  toilet  by  cleaning  its 
jaws  with  its  arms,  as  with  a  tooth-brush,  slips  back  again 
into  its  dwelling.  After  an  interval  it  reappears  and  acts  in 
the  same  manner.  The  sand  cast  out  gradually  rises  into  a 
pyramid  a  span  high,  which  the  active  crab  climbs  with  each 
new  parcel  of  sand,  and  dexterously  forms  the  top  into  a  fine 
point.  A  field  containing  a  thousand  of  such  pyramids  gives 
ample  testimony  to  this  activity.  Every  act  is  carefully 
weighed  and  considered  beforehand.  When  it  comes  out  of 
its  hole  it  remains  standing,  the  feet  on  one  side  still  within 
the  threshold  of  its  domicile;  it  then  elevates  its  wary  club- 
shaped  eyes,  assures  itself  of  the  state  of  matters  in  the 
vicinity,  and  if  convinced  of  the  absence  of  every  dangei", 
continues  its  work.  The  observer  must,  therefore,  remain 
quite  still  at  a  little  distance.  It  is  not  very  easy  to  get  hold 
of  this  shy  and  light-footed  crab.  It  perceives  us  long  before 
we  can  get  near  it,  and  scuttles  off  with  inconceivable  rapidity, 
always  keeping  one  side  foremost,  towards  its  well-known 
dwelling;  into  this,  however,  it  does  not  at  once  disappear, 
but  remains  on  the  threshold  to  take  a  survey,  and  having 
maliciously  allowed  the  enemy  to  come  quite  close  to  it  dives 


ON  THE  SHOEE.  387 

in  at  the  last  moment  with  the  quickness  of  lightning.  If 
we  come  upon  it  and  intercept  it  when  on  one  of  its  excur- 
sions, and  at  a  distance  from  its  hole,  it  eludes  us  by  a 
hundred  turns  and  crafty  movements,  running  on  occasion 
almost  as  well  forward  as  sideways,  and  always  making  for 
the  sea,  by  the  waves  of  which  it  allows  itself  to  be  carried 
away,  and  in  an  instant  has  disappeared  under  the  sandy 
bottom  or  in  some  hole  in  the  rocks.  If  we  prevent  this  by 
driving  it  away  from  the  sea,  it  presses  itself  in  despair  in 
among  the  sand,  throws  a  covering  of  sand  over  itself,  and 
our  eyes  can  often  no  longer  distinguish  the  dull  yellowish- 
gray  carapace  of  the  crab  from  the  similarly  coloured  sand. 
We  may  find  it  again,  however,  and  think  there  is  no  escape 
for  it  this  time;  but  if  we  incautiously  seize  it  we  shall  in 
all  probability  have  to  fling  it  from  us,  with  a  lively  feeling 
of  the  effects  of  its  sharp  and  powerful  nippers  on  our  fingers, 
so  that  after  all  we  may  ourselves  give  it  its  liberty.  The  sim- 
plest way  is  to  throw  a  cloth  over  it,  and  this  we  do  when,  after 
some  hard  work,  we  dig  it  out  of  its  deep  hole  in  the  sand. 

The  rock  crabs  {Grapsus),  swarms  of  which  enliven  the 
shady  rocks,  walls,  and  stones  near  and  in  the  sea,  are  no  less 
clever.  They  are  also  very  swift  runners,  but  their  forte  is 
climbing  and  hiding.  It  is  a  trifle  to  them  to  clamber  up 
and  down  perpendicular  rocky  walls  50  feet  high,  provided 
these  have  inequalities  enough  in  which  to  insert  their 
pointed  claws  and  spiny  feet.  They  also  make  game  of  the 
crab  hunter,  allowing  him  to  lay  his  hand  over  them,  but 
when  he  attempts  to  grasp  them,  suddenly  darting  off*  to  hide 
in  the  nearest  crevice.  When  they  are  caught  it  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  tear  them  away  from  their  position,  and  to  avoid 
letting  the  hand  be  injured  by  their  sharp  claws.  There  is 
less  reason  to  fear  a  pinch  from  their  nippers,  which  are  blunt 
and  spoonshaped.  It  is  advisable  to  use  a  cloth  in  laying 
hold  of  them  too. 

A  hermit-crab,  by  name  Coenobita  rugosus,  is  an  important 
inhabitant  of  the  coast.  It  might  lay  claim  to  be  considered 
sacred,  since,  like  the  vulture,  it  clears  the  coast  of  carrion; 
but  it  is  also  an  audacious  thief,  and  with  the  utmost  effront- 


388  UPPER  EGYPT. 

ery  takes  advantage  of  every  unguarded  moment  in  order 
to  attack  the  stores  of  the  traveller.  Its  number  is  legion. 
We  hear  behind  a  stone  or  rock  a  mysterious,  rustling,  clat- 
tering sound.  Stepping  up  to  the  spot  we  perceive  a  fish  or 
some  other  unfortunate  creature  of  the  deep,  half  reduced  to 
a  skeleton,  and  closely  covered  with  a  great  number  of  uni- 
valve shells  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  but  chiefly  the  round- 
mouthed  shell  (Turbo  radiatus).  Everything  is  as  still  as  a 
mouse,  and  if  we  lift  up  or  move  the  putrefying  carcass  all 
the  shells  fall  off.  Some  of  them  are  fresh  and  clean,  but  the 
majority  are  worn,  damaged,  and  discoloured;  in  many  of 
them  we  notice  a  little  round  hole.  Picking  one  up  we  see 
that  the  mouth  is  tightly  closed  by  the  operculum,  and  think- 
ing that  it  will  suit  our  collection  we  keep  it  in  our  hand 
and  continue  our  investigation.  In  a  little  we  feel  a  scratch- 
ing and  pinching  in  our  hand;  we  open  it,  but  see  nothing 
except  the  shell  with  its  aperture  tightly  closed.  But  we 
now  notice  some  peculiarities  about  the  operculum,  and  soon 
find  that  it  is  no  operculum  at  all,  but  the  claws  and  anterior 
parts  of  a  crustacean — a  pale-coloured  crab  with  long  feelers, 
bulbous  eyes,  and  well- sized  nippers,  but  with  only  two  loco- 
motive feet  visible  on  either  side.  We  endeavour  to  rescue 
it  from  its  prison,  but  it  draws  itself  back  and  remains 
motionless  again  in  its  chamber.  The  last  joints  of  its  feet 
and  its  nippers  close  together  so  as  to  form  a  smooth  surface 
shutting  up  the  aperture.  We  try  to  pull  the  animal  out, 
but  it  will  let  its  head  and  feet  remain  in  our  fingers  rather 
than  allow  us  to  get  possession  of  the  soft  and  sheUess 
hinder-part  of  its  body,  which  is  only  brought  to  light  by 
smashing  the  shell.  The  animal  can  be  made  to  crawl  entirely 
out  by  putting  it  in  a  liquid  which  is  disagreeable  to  it, 
such  as  putrid  sea-water,  or  by  the  somewhat  cruel  joke  of 
heating  the  shell  with  a  live  coal  or  a  cigar.  As  a  rule  it 
lives  in  its  shell  like  Diogenes  in  his  tub  (it  is  sometimes 
called  the  Diogenes  crab),  runs  about  with  it,  not  actively  to 
be  sure,  but  unweariedly,  and  even  climbs  rocks,  walls,  and 
trees.  It  often  goes  a  long  distance  from  the  coast,  and  like 
the  mouse-crab,  digs  for  itself  holes  in  the  ground.     These 


ON  THE  SHORE.  339 

holes  are  shallow,  being  only  about  half  a  foot  deep,  and  are 
not  left  open  like  those  of  the  crab  just  mentioned.  The 
fishermen,  who  use  it  for  bait,  discover  its  dwelling  by  a  cir- 
cular or  horse-shoe  shaped  linear  depression  round  a  little 
heap  of  loose  sand  or  round  a  flat  sandy  surface.  In  selecting 
a  shell  as  an  abode  in  which  it  can  protect  its  soft  and  easily 
injured  tail,  the  crab  seems  to  prefer  those  of  which  the 
original  inhabitants  have  perished  by  some  external  cause, 
such  as  the  piercing  of  the  shell  by  other  animals — a  faculty 
possessed  by  many  molluscs  and  annelids.  This  explains 
why  so  many  of  the  dwellings  inhabited  by  the  hermit-crabs 
have  holes  in  them. 

Another  hermit-crab  is  the  black  and  yellow  striped  Cli- 
hanarius  signatus,  which  also  occurs  in  immense  numbers. 
It  also  leaves  the  water  to  feed  on  putrefying  substances  with 
the  previous  species;  but  as  it  requires  more  moisture  it  does 
not  go  beyond  the  shore,  nor  does  it  dig  holes  for  itself.  It 
cannot  place  its  feet  so  as  to  closely  shut  the  aperture  of  its 
shell.  It  is  not  so  large  as  the  other  species.  Very  young 
specimens  inhabit  the  tiniest  shells,  especially  the  needle  shells 
(Cerithium),  and  it  does  not  despise  worm  tubes  and  other 
habitable  articles.  This  species  inhabits  the  reef  up  to  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  surf,  and  is  here  one  of  the  most 
abundant  animals;  it  conceals  itself  among  stones,  and  at 
spots  which  are  first  laid  bare  at  ebb-tide,  but  still  afford 
shade  and  moisture. 

If  we  stir  up  the  sand  on  the  beach  within  flood-mark  we 
shall  be  sure  to  find  at  the  depth  of  a  few  inches  some  species 
of  mollusc,  such  as  the  Cytherea  arahica,  with  its  many  mark- 
ings, or  the  Mesodesma  glahratum,  called  by  the  natives 
*' sea-egg."  Under  stones  creeps  a  little  flat  crab,  the  thorax 
of  which  is  marked  with  all  shades  from  milk  white  to  raven 
black.  Once  discovered,  it  does  not  know  how  to  rescue  itself 
like  its  relative  and  associate  the  grapsus  and  the  little  Boto 
sulcatus.  In  these  localities,  which,  though  wet,  have  yet  a 
suflSciency  of  air,  land-slaters  and  millepeds  live  a  kind  of 
amphibious  life  along  with  water-slaters,  and  molluscs,  and 
salt-water  worms.    Flat-worms  (Planaria)  glide  rapidly  over 


340  UPPER  EGYPT. 

the  rock,  and  when  cut  in  pieces  each  begins  a  separate  life 
as  lively  as  before.  There  lie  a  transparent  white  holothuria 
(Synapta),  and  an  inextricable  tangle  of  thread- worms  {Bor- 
Ictsia,  Meckelia,  Nemertes).  Where  the  soil  of  the  beach  is 
muddy,  long,  many- jointed  rose-red  sea-scolopendras  wriggle; 
these  are  sought  by  the  fisherman  as  bait  for  his  hooks. 
Thousands  of  sea-fleas  {Orchestia)  hop  out  when  we  disturb 
the  sea- weed  on  the  beach  or  turn  up  the  damp  sand ;  they 
are  as  active  as  the  little  guests  that  derive  their  food  from 
our  bodies,  and  to  bring  a  dozen  of  them  together  is  a  work 
of  much  patience  and  circumspection. 

Until  the  reef  is  entirely  uncovered  with  w^ater  we  may 
contemplate  the  winged  inhabitants  of  the  air  and  water, 
who  find  their  food  (perhaps  also  their  drink)  in  the  briny 
deep.  Only  a  few  of  them  are  permanent  residents;  in  order 
to  get  a  drink  of  fresh  water  they  must  fly  a  long  distance 
into  the  mountains.  Most  of  them  are  birds  of  passage,  or 
perform  at  least  local  migrations.  The  flocks  increase  in 
spring  and  autumn,  when  the  birds  seek  a  more  congenial 
climate.  Then  appear  all  kinds  of  plovers,  snipes,  herons,  and 
water-hens,  also  ducks,  cormorants,  gannets,  gulls,  and  sea- 
swallows.  They  are  generally  the  same  species  as  are  found 
in  the  north  in  summer;  but  some  are  peculiar  to  these 
regions,  or  are  more  southerly  forms,  such  as  the  courser 
(half  a  desert,  half  a  shore  bird),  the  giant  heron,  and  the 
gulls  and  sea-swallows  belonging  to  the  Red  Sea.  The  migra- 
tions last  the  whole  winter  through.  In  summer,  on  the 
other  hand,  bird-life  in  this  region  of  the  sea  almost  entirely 
ceases,  the  only  birds  remaining  being  the  fishing  eagle  and 
a  few  plovers  and  sandpipers;  even  gulls,  sea-swallows,  and 
herons  disappear.  The  vulture  is  a  permanent  shore-bird. 
The  hysena  and  the  dog  are  nocturnal  visitors  to  the  shore 
and  the  reef. 

PREPARING  FOR  A  VISIT  TO  THE  REEF. 

The  waters  have  begun  to  withdraw,  the  outermost  shore- 
zone  of  the  reef  becomes  passable,  and  we  prepare  to  set  foot 


THE   EEEF.  341 

on  it.  We  could  get  on  very  well  with  boots,  by  choosing  the 
higher  and  drier  spots,  and  perhaps  under  favourable  condi- 
tions might  reach  the  edge  of  the  reef  next  the  sea  without 
wetting  more  than  our  soles;  but  the  sea- water,  when  assisted 
by  the  jagged  surface  of  the  rock,  has  a  very  destructive  effect 
upon  leather.  Even  water-boots  of  Russian  leather  are  not 
to  be  recommended,  as  they  soon  burst  and  shrink ;  nor  are 
the  best  patent  soles  of  any  service.  Besides,  who  could 
repair  this  foreign  foot-covering  here?  It  is  best  then  to 
follow  the  custom  of  the  country,  and  put  on  sandals  of  a 
kind  of  leather  prepared  for  holding  water,  and  called  zem- 
zemiyeh.  We  also  wind  a  piece  of  cloth  turbanwise  round 
the  tasselled  cap  to  prevent  the  rays  of  the  sun  from  causing 
sun-stroke.  In  other  respects  we  have  no  need  to  fear  the 
heat;  the  sea- wind  fans  us  and  keeps  us  cool,  becoming 
stronger  the  higher  the  sun  rises;  in  this  warm  zone,  indeed, 
the  mid-day  hours  in  summer  cannot  be  spent  more  coolly 
and  agreeably  anywhere  than  on  the  reef  and  in  the  sea. 
We  have  an  attendant  with  us  carrying  a  basket  divided 
into  compartments,  and  containing  tin  cases  of  different  sizes, 
a  good  steel  hammer,  and  a  steel  chisel,  also  perhaps  some 
hoop  and  other  nets  and  a  pair  of  pincers. 

THE  EEEF. 

Thus  equipped  we  wander  over  the  jagged  rocky  surface 
of  the  shore  zone.  A  glance  on  the  dark- coloured  rock,  which 
here  is  generally  bare,  teaches  us  that  it  is  no  ordinary  rock, 
but  a  conglomerate  formed  of  lime,  shells,  worm-tubes,  and 
especially  coral  blocks,  like  the  rocks  that  we  saw  from  the 
land  projecting  towards  the  shore.  The  reef,  a  so-called 
coast-reef,  commences  immediately  at  the  shore-line  and  ex- 
tends seawards  for  200  to  400  paces,  presenting  on  the  whole 
a  flat  surface,  and  running  along  the  shore  for  miles  without 
a  break  except  opposite  the  entrance  of  some  valley,  which 
formerly  brought  down  fresh  water  and  sometimes  does  so 
still.  When  more  closely  examined,  however,  some  differ- 
ences of  level  present  themselves.     A  slight  elevation  of  the 


842  UPPER  EGYPT. 

shore  zone  is  generally  noticeable,  the  consequence  of  which  is 
that  it  is  the  portion  first  left  dry  when  the  tide  is  going  out 
and  last  covered  when  the  tide  comes  in.  The  main  surface, 
which  at  ebb-tide  is  laid  bare  at  once,  besides  presenting 
various  projections  and  irregularities,  embraces  a  number  of 
larger  and  smaller  depressions,  the  bottom  of  which  becomes 
filled  with  sand,  and  in  these  hollows  the  w^ater  is  retained 
even  at  ebb-tide,  forming  pools  that  receive  the  name  of 
kalaua  from  the  Arabs.  Only  in  the  shallowest  depressions 
does  the  water  evaporate.  At  ebb-tide,  then,  the  reef  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  net- work  with  lagunes  as  meshes,  or  when 
they  communicate  with  each  other,  and  are  very  numerous, 
a  kind  of  archipelago  is  formed.  At  spots  here  and  there 
large  blocks  of  stone,  similar  to  erratic  blocks,  rise  from  the 
surface  of  the  reef.  These  are  regarded  by  the  common 
people  as  "petrified  vessels."  They  are  continuous  with  the 
surface  of  the  reef,  and  consist  of  the  same  kind  of  rock  as 
this  and  as  the  rocks  on  the  shore.  Other  blocks  are  loose, 
not  joined  on  to  the  rock  below,  and  are  moved  about  by  the 
violence  of  the  waves.  In  other  respects  the  surface  of  the 
reef  is,  generally  speaking,  level.  The  formation  of  the  reef 
surface  is  only  to  be  explained  by  the  hypothesis  that  the 
secular  elevation  of  the  land  withdrew  the  coral  polyps  next 
the  shore  from  their  natural  conditions  of  life,  thus  causing 
them  to  die  out,  while  next  the  sea  the  formation  of  the  coral 
was  still  continued.  In  the  Ked  Sea,  accordingly,  this  reef- 
formation  is  not  brought  about,  as  Darwin  and  Dana  claim 
to  have  shown  in  the  case  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  by  the 
sinking,  bat  on  the  contrary  by  the  elevation  of  the  sea 
bottom. 

OUTER  SHORE  ZONE. 

The  outermost  zone  of  the  reef,  as  remarked  above,  enjoys 
the  refreshing  influence  of  the  cool  sea- water  only  for  a  few 
hours.  In  summer,  therefore,  the  water  in  the  small  shallow 
pools  becomes  so  hot  at  low  tide  as  to  compel  the  sudden 
withdrawal  of  the  naked  foot.  On  several  days  of  the  year 
high  water  can  scarcely  be  noticed  at  all,  the  reef  remains 


OUTER  SHORE  ZO^E.  343 

dry  for  one  or  two  days,  and  this  occurs,  as  a  rule,  once  in 
winter  and  once  in  summer.  When  this  takes  place  the 
temperature  of  the  water  in  the  pools  becomes  so  high  in 
summer  and  so  low  in  winter  that  the  animals  living  in  them, 
fish  in  particular,  die  in  great  numbers.  Some  kinds  ot 
worms  that  are  never  seen  at  other  times  now  come  out  of 
their  deep  lurking  places  in  the  sand  and  die  on  the  surface. 
In  this  zone  thrive  gasteropodous  molluscs  of  the  genus 
Nerita,  species  of  which  are  found  also  in  brackish  and  in 
fresh  water.  One  species  {Nevita  polita)  has  always  a 
smooth  and  polished  surface,  that  of  another  (N'.  alhicilla), 
which  exposes  itself  more  to  the  sun  and  air,  has  generally  a 
weather-worn  appearance.  The  holes  and  crevices  in  the 
porous  rock  afford  welcome  hiding-places  to  the  beckoning- 
crab  {Gelasimus  tetragonon).  Its  dwelling  is  here  and  not 
on  the  beach.  It  does  not  dig  holes  in  the  sand  as  is  said  to 
be  the  habit  of  the  Brazilian  species  {G.  vocans),  but  the 
sand  that  accumulates  in  its  rocky  dwelling  through  the  rise 
of  the  tide  is  rejected  in  the  form  of  small  round  balls  as 
soon  as  the  water  withdraws  again.  It  is  not  a  particularly 
quick  runner,  and  therefore  cautiously  remains  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  its  abode.  Its  eyes  are  supported  on  long  foot- 
stalks. The  full-grown  males  carry  an  enormous  nipping- 
claw  compared  with  the  animal's  size  and  that  of  the  other 
claw;  the  young  ones  have  it  of  more  moderate  dimensions. 
The  females  have  two  small  nipping-claws  both  of  the  same 
size.  It  is  often  said  that  they  block  up  the  entrance  of  their 
hole  with  this  large  claw,  but  this  is  not  correct,  as  they 
almost  always  hold  it  before  them  when  crawling  in.  A  pair 
are  generally  found  in  the  hole.  When  running  the  males 
have  a  habit  of  holding  their  claw  aloft,  or  of  keeping  it 
before  them  like  a  boxer  on  guard,  the  powerful  nippers 
always  ready  to  pinch.  It  is  this  position  that  has  gained 
for  it  the  name  of  beckoning-crab. 

A  similar  skulking  mode  of  life  is  practised  by  the  large- 
eyed  crabs  (Macrophthalmus)  and  the  Chlorodius  Edwardsii, 
which  is  common  aU  over  the  reef,  but  especially  here.  The 
latter  varies  greatly  in  its  colouring,  and  often  has  a  cross 


.344<  UPPER  EGYPT. 

and  other  figures  painted  on  its  back.  Small  black  mussels 
{Mytilus  variabilis)  are  attached  by  their  beard  (byssus)  to 
the  coral  rock,  and  surround  the  pools  and  clefts  in  the  rock 
like  a  wreath.  As  their  valves  gape  slightly  the  fine  green 
edge  of  their  mantle  may  be  seen.  Under  the  stones  and  in 
the  pools  are  found  a  multitude  of  periwinkles  (LittOrind), 
and  large  and  small  needle-shells  (Cerithium),  together  with 
Nerita,  as  well  as  the  hermit-crab  that  takes  possession  of 
their  shells  (Clihanarius).  On  ridges  of  the  reef  that  have 
become  dry  and  warm  a  Purpura,  known  as  the  horse-chest- 
nut shell  (Purpura  hippocastanum),  crawls  about  with  the 
others  just  mentioned,  while  limpets  (Patella  variegata)  and 
chitons  as  long  as  the  finger  (Chiton  spiniger)  have  attached 
themselves  by  suction  to  the  rock,  surrounded  by  little  balls 
of  dirt  formed  by  them.  When  taken  by  surprise  they  may 
easily  be  detached  by  a  flat  instrument  and  used  as  food  (at 
least  the  Patella);  but  if  the  danger  is  noticed  in  time  they 
stick  so  close  that  they  cannot  be  removed  without  rupturing 
their  bodies,  unless  a  chisel  is  used  and  they  are  chipped  off 
along  with  the  piece  of  rock  below  them.  The  chitons  roll 
themselves  up  like  wood-lice  after  being  detached.  These 
two  sorts  of  molluscs  are  not  altogether  condemned  to  one 
spot,  they  can  crawl,  though  certainly  not  much  more  quickly 
than  a  plant  grows.  Being  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun 
and  other  influences,  their  shells  have  generally  a  coarse  and 
worn  surface,  like  the  Nerita  alhicilla. 

In  the  sandy  pools  we  may  observe,  after  the  water  has 
run  off,  a  multitude  of  little  hills  with  a  crater-like  hole  in 
the  top,  from  which  at  intervals  a  jet  of  water  shoots;  fine 
threads  enveloped  in  sand  radiate  from  all  sides  of  the  crater, 
and  even  from  the  sides  of  the  hill,  but  they  are  only  observed 
when  they  are  being  withdrawn.  Occasionally  a  thick  fleshy 
thread  is  projected  from  the  crater.  On  digging  into  the 
hillock  we  find  tubes  winding  about  in  many  directions  and 
formed  of  particles  of  sand  and  fragments  of  shells.  The 
inhabitant  of  these  is  a  tube- worm  (Terehella)\  it  withdraws 
so  deeply  into  the  sand  that  it  can  scarcely  be  got  Jiold  of. 
Oat  of  one  hole,  in  front  of  which  there  is  an  eddy  in  the 


THE  INNER  SHORE  OR  SEA-GRASS  ZONE.  845 

water,  we  notice,  after  a  little  observation,  a  crab  peering 
and  waving  its  upper  feelers;  in  another,  out  of  which  a 
stream  of  water  is  forced,  we  see  the  long  feelers  and  the 
nippers  of  a  small  long-tailed  crab,  an  Alpheus.  Holes  with 
small  round  balls  in  front  of  them  belong,  as  already  men- 
tioned, to  the  beckoning-crab.  Many  little  hillocks  of  sand 
are  surrounded  by  a  multitude  of  small  sand-cylinders;  these 
are  the  frasfments  of  a  loner  round  sand  column  which  is  forced 
out  at  intervals  through  a  hole  in  the  hillock,  like  vermicelli 
from  the  tube  in  which  it  is  formed;  the  author  of  this 
phenomenon  cannot  be  laid  hold  of.  There  lies  a  smooth 
sheet  of  sand  rolled  up  in  a  spiral  form;  after  drying  it 
crumbles  at  the  slightest  shock;  it  is  the  spawn  of  a  species 
of  Natica.  The  delicate  thread-like  algae  (Phycoseris  reticu- 
lata) of  the  pools  are  covered  with  myriads  of  the  spat  of 
Cerithiums,  Patellas,  and  other  molluscs.  The  bright-green 
fronds  of  the  Phycoseris  swarm  with  the  lively-coloured, 
almost  microscopical,  Cyclops.  Almost  the  only  fish  found 
here  during  the  ebb  are  young  gobies  and  sea-leapers  (Salarias), 
and  the  remarkable  Cyprinodon  dispar,  belonging  to  the 
fresh-water  family  of  the  toothed-carps  (Cyprinodontidce). 
The  male  and  female  of  the  latter  appear  to  be  quite  different 
fishes.  When  the  pools  threaten  to  dry  up  these  fishes  slip 
under  stones  and  into  crevices  of  the  rock,  or  work  their  way 
over  a  piece  of  dry  ground  into  hollows  better  filled  with 
water.  Here  flourish  also  in  many  inlets  of  the  sea  thickets  of 
the  laurel-like  shora  shrub  (Avicennia  officinalis,  see  p.  240). 
But  on  the  whole  this  part  of  the  shore  zone  is  poor  in  forms, 
and  the  animals  that  do  exist  withdraw  from  the  investigator 
into  the  unfathomable  clefts  of  the  hard  rock  which  lies 
below  the  slight  deposit  of  sand  that  covers  the  bottom  of 
the  pools,  and  somewhat  annoyed  we  proceed  a  little  farther 
towards  the  sea. 

THE  INNER  SHORE  OR  SEA-GRASS  ZONE. 

The  pools  among  the  rocks,  which  are  either  bare  or 
covered  with  a  blackish  and  red  mucilaginous  sea- weed,  are 
now  filled  with  greater  quantities  of  sand,  and  on  this  soil 


346  UPPER  EGYPT. 

grow  green  phanerogamous  grasses  of  the  family  of  the 
Naiadese  (Halodule  australis,  Halophila  ovata  and  stipu- 
lacea,  and  Cymodocea  ciliata).  By  stripping  the  hand 
through  them  a  person  may  fill  it  with  the  very  small  but 
pretty  shells  of  the  Neritina  Rangiana.  Here  creep  and 
feed  sea-hares  (Aplysia),  pleurobranchs  (Pleurohranchus), 
bubble-shells  (Bulla  physis  and  B.  ampulla),  the  gigantic 
conical  Dolabella,  all  sorts  of  sea-lemons  (Doris),  and  other 
nudibranchiates  (Eolis).  A  number  of  species  of  wing-shells 
(Stromhidce)  knock  against  each  other  in  hopping  about;  one 
of  the  commonest  is  Stromhus  gibherulus,  white,  with  a 
beautiful  carmine-red  mouth.  It  is  found  thrown  up  in 
quantities  on  the  beach.  The  allied  finger-shell  {Pteroceras 
bryonia)  is  almost  a  foot  long,  and  its  flesh  is  boiled  and 
eaten.  These  Strombi  cannot  crawl,  they  can  only  hop  by 
planting  and  suddenly  extending  the  slender  arm-like  and 
very  protrusible  foot,  which  is  furnished  with  a  toothed  and 
claw-like  operculum.  By  this  method  of  locomotion  the 
animal  can  turn  its  shell  round  at  pleasure,  and  hop  forwards, 
backwards,  and  sideways. 

Among  the  grasses  small  shrimp-like  crabs — the  trans- 
parent Palsemon,  green  Hippolyte,  and  almost  microscopical 
Mysis — swim  about.  A  species  of  shy-crab  (Calappa)  skulks 
along  the  sandy  bottom  and  conceals  itself  under  a  slight 
covering  of  sand,  pushing  itself  in  sideways  or  backwards. 
Similar  habits  are  displayed  by  the  swimming  crabs  {Lupea, 
Tlialamita,  Portunus,  Matuta).  They  are  common  enough 
also  near  the  shore  in  the  sandy  and  muddy  bay  forming 
the  port,  and  conceal  themselves  under  stones  and  mud. 
They  are  good  runners,  swimmers,  diggers,  and  climbers,  and 
can,  in  addition,  escape  from  their  pursuers  by  stirring  up 
the  mud  and  rendering  the  water  turbid,  an  artifice  which 
enables  them  to  hide  themselves  or  swim  from  the  spot 
without  being  noticed.  The  rare  grayish-green  Lupea 
Tranqueharica  is  one  of  the  largest  crabs  of  this  sea.  Deep 
in  the  sand  of  the  grassy  pools,  their  byssus  attached  to  the 
underlying  rock,  the  brittle  Pinnae  hide  themselves,  one 
species  (Pinna  nigrind)  reaching  a  length  of  2  feet.   In  these 


THE  INNER  SHORE   OR  SEA-GRASS  ZONE.  847 

are  found  the  celebrated  Pinnotheres  or  pinna-guard,  a  little 
crustacean,  which,  in  former  times,  when  poets  and  singers 
rode  upon  dolphins,  carefully  guarded  the  entrance  to  the 
house  of  the  blind  pinna,  but  has  now  sunk  to  the  level  of  a 
despicable  parasite.  If  we  clear  out  the  sandy  pools  we  find, 
besides  various  kinds  of  worms,  a  multitude  of  shells  of  the 
genera  Tellina  and  Lucina  come  to  light,  though  generally 
only  the  empty  valves;  the  living  shells  are  down  in  the 
cool  depths.  The  rare  watering-pot  shell  (Aspergillum)  also 
lives  here,  as  well  as  a  peculiar  annelid  that  hides  itself  in  a 
conical  tube.  We  had  expected  to  find  more  bivalves  here, 
but  beyond  the  ones  just  mentioned  and  those  named  before, 
some  Yenus-shells  (Gytherea),  ark-shells  (Area),  heart-shells 
(Gardita),  and  the  like,  there  are  not  many  regular  bivalves 
in  this  sea.  Both  in  number  of  species  and  of  individuals 
this  section  stands  far  below  the  univalves  or  snails;  the 
greater  number  of  its  forms  belong  to  the  Monomya,  Heter- 
omya,  and  Dimya  with  unequal  valves. 

On  the  rocky  projections  of  the  reef  between  the  pools  sit 
large  numbers  of  limpets,  chitons,  and  all  the  shore  molluscs. 
Leaving  the  grassy  pools  the  pear-shells  {Pirula),  large-sized 
navel- shells  (Natica),  sharp-pointed  needle-shells  (Terehra), 
in  numerous  species,  and  the  hoop-net  shells  (Wassa),  which 
can  creep  quickly  for  a  snail,  enjoy  the  sun  and  air.  The 
majority  of  the  clefts  and  crevices  have  been  taken  possession 
of  by  gray,  brown,  and  black  serpent-stars  {Ophiocoma  erina- 
ceus  and  scolopendrina).  They  have  some  of  their  arms  or 
rays  at  rest  and  extended  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  rock, 
which  is  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  water,  while  they  sit  with 
the  others  twined  up  together  in  the  hole;  or  their  arms  are 
stretched  out  from  the  hole  and  rest  in  the  numerous  gaps 
in  the  rock.  It  is  only  when  they  feel  themselves  seized 
that  they  withdraw  their  arms,  pressing  these  pliant  and 
prickly  appendages  more  and  more  firmly  to  the  rock  w^ithin 
the  more  their  assailant  pulls,  till  at  last,  instead  of  the  body 
of  the  animal,  a  few  fragments  of  its  broken  arms  come 
away  in  the  hands  of  the  astonished  star-fish  hunter.  Since 
they  are  constantly  liable  to  the  attacks  of  fishermen  (for 


348  UPPER  EGYPT. 

bait),  fish,  and  otlier  enemies,  some  of  their  rays  are  generally 
broken,  or  they  exhibit  various  other  marks  of  injury.  The 
lost  members  soon  sprout  and  grow  again,  but  the  new 
portions  remain  for  some  time  not  fully  developed  and 
brighter  in  colour  than  the  articulations  nearest  the  body 
disk.  A  collector  who  wishes  complete  Ophiuras  must 
carefully  pull  the  disk-formed  body  itself,  or  hew  the  animals 
out  of  the  rock,  or  surprise  them  when  detached  and  bathing 
themselves  in  the  water. 

Side  by  side  with  the  serpent-stars  star-shaped  egg-urchins 
{Echinometra  lucunter)  peep  out  of  narrow  holes.  When  it 
depresses  its  prickles  voluntarily  this  animal  can  easily  slip 
out  and  in,  like  a  vessel  that  lowers  its  mast  when  passing 
under  a  bridge.  When  it  is  violently  pulled,  however,  it 
elevates  its  pretty  strong  prickles  so  as  to  make  it  even  more 
than  fill  the  hole,  and  all  attempts  to  move  it  are  useless, 
especially  as  the  prickles,  which  are  not  very  hard  or  sharp, 
do  not  afford  a  good  grasp  for  the  hand.  These  animals 
would  seem  often  to  bore  holes  in  the  rock  for  themselves. 

THE  DIVISION  INTO  ZONES. 

Our  division  of  the  reef,  from  the  shore  seawards,  into 
zones  that  correspond  to  various  depths  or  horizons  is  not 
an  arbitrary  one.  Here,  to  be  sure,  as  in  nature  generally, 
there  are  no  abrupt  transitions.  In  different  districts  some 
one  or  other  of  the  zones  may  be  hardly  represented  at  all  or 
may  preponderate  over  the  others,  and  the  inhabitants  of  one 
zone  often  extend  into  others.  But  these  zones  force  them- 
selves upon  the  notice  of  the  explorer  again  and  again;  each 
has  its  own  peculiar  character  and  its  prevailing  species. 
New  forms  appear  in  the  second  zone  that  were  not  met  with 
in  the  first;  forms  that  have  already  occurred  become  rarer 
or  vanish  altogether;  the  external  aspect  changes. 

STYLOPHORA  OR  CORALLINE  ZONK 

We  have  passed  through  the  shore  zone,  and  have  found 
an  outer  girdle,  followed  immediately  by  the  subdivision  of 


JOYS  AND  SORROWS  OF  THE  NATURALIST.      349 

the  sea- grass  pools.  The  genera  prevailing  here  we  have 
seen  to  be  Clibanarius,  Gelasimus,  Nerita,  Litorina,  Strombus 
and  Pirula.  The  second  chief  zone  begins  with  a  moss-like 
alga  which  covers  the  rock,  and  forms,  with  the  sand  retained 
in  the  midst  of  its  fronds,  a  soft  covering  which  is  far  more 
comfortable  for  the  feet  than  the  sharp  ridges  of  the  shore 
zone.  The  pools  are  deeper  and  larger,  filled  wdtli  pure 
transparent  water,  and  resembling  wells.  A  characteristic 
feature  is  the  occurrence  of  corallines,  and  the  first  appear- 
ance of  corals,  the  earliest  forms  of  the  latter  appearing  in 
the  branchy  Stylophora.  Everything  that  lives  here  loves 
pure,  fresh,  and  not  too  hot  water,  which  is  not  apt  to  be 
much  disturbed.  At  many  points  this  portion  of  the  reef  is 
somewhat  higher  than  the  shore  zone,  and  wide  stretches  of 
it  are  almost  entirely  clear  of  water  at  every  low  tide,  the  only 
water  remaining  being  that  in  the  deep  pools  or  wells.  This 
elevation  probably  arises  from  tlie  fact  that  the  surf  waves, 
already  broken  on  the  slope  of  the  reef,  are  able  to  throw  the 
foremost  portion  of  their  water  up  here  and  deposit  their  sand. 
In  other  places  this  zone  lies  lower,  and  even  at  low  tide 
extends  for  the  most  part  as  a  lake  until  close  to  the  shore. 
But  also  in  this  case  there  generally  remains  behind  the  surf 
of  the  outer  slope  a  higher  surface  which  assures  the  quiet- 
ness of  this  zone,  and  in  spite  of  difference  of  appearance  the 
moss-like  Algse,  the  Corallines,  the  Stylophorae,  and  the  forms 
to  be  mentioned  below,  at  once  tell  us  where  we  are.  This 
portion  of  the  reef  we  call  the  Stylophora  zone.  It  may  cor- 
respond to  the  quiet  lagoons  behind  the  reefs  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 

JOYS  AND   SORROWS  OF  THE  NATURALIST. 

The  fauna  and  flora  of  the  portion  of  the  reef  occupied  by 
this  coralline  zone  are  exceedingly  rich.  For  years  one  may 
make  an  excursion  to  this  zone  at  every  low  tide,  may  wander 
over  its  soft  surface,  turn  over  and  shatter  the  stones  in  the 
wells  and  the  blocks  of  coral  broken  off  the  slope  of  the  reef  by 
the  violence  of  the  surf,  strip  off  the  Algse,  smash  the  living 
polypites,  empty  out  sandy  holes,  and  try  to  catch  the  fish; 


350  UPPER  EGYPT. 

something  new  will  always  be  found.  If  a  person,  believing 
he  has  exhausted  one  district,  examines  another  and  more  dis- 
tant district,  he  will  see  essentially  the  same  things.  There  is 
no  use,  therefore,  in  going  very  far,  since  the  good  things  lie  so 
near,  but  still  the  toil  and  trouble  of  larger  excursions  are  not 
quite  unrewarded.  The  naturalist  is  more  easily  satisfied 
than  the  treasure-seeker;  the  latter,  on  finding  after  a  long 
search  an  old  copper  coin,  throws  it  away  in  a  rage,  but  the 
former,  if  he  finds  to-day  a  single  species  previously  unknown 
to  him,  carries  it  home  quite  contented.  During  his  investi- 
gations he  will  also  have  collected  in  his  phials  some  species 
previously  known  to  him,  but  rare;  he  will  have  made  some 
new  observation,  or  cleared  up  some  phenomenon  about  which 
he  was  previously  in  the  dark.  His  realm  is  boundless. 
To-day  the  fishes  obtain  the  most  of  his  attention,  to-morrow 
he  prefers  the  crustaceans;  at  one  time  he  studies  the  mollusca, 
at  another  the  annelida;  and,  lo!  in  the  very  cavity  that  he  has 
examined  a  hundred  times  he  finds  some  entirely  new  members 
of  that  kingdom  to  which  to-day  he  has  specially  devoted  him- 
self But  what  he  takes  with  him  he  must  always  study 
thoroughly  at  home;  he  must  know  what  he  has,  and  what  may 
still  remain  to  be  got,  otherwise  he  will  not  distinguish  nearly 
allied  animals,  but  let  them  lie:  an  unscientific  person,  there- 
fore, one  who  does  not  study,  will  never  make  a  good  collector. 
It  would  be  very  agreeable  to  be  a  specialist  on  this  teeming 
sea,  to  devote  one's  whole  life,  as  European  naturalists  do,  to 
a  small  section  of  the  boundless  empire  of  Nature;  but  in 
truth  the  feelings  rebel  against  this,  and  the  strictest  deter- 
mination in  this  direction  brought  from  the  clear-headed 
North  melts  away  amid  the  magnificence  and  variety  of  the 
tropic  sea.  Who  could  disregard  this  Doris  so  beautifully 
coloured,  or  simply  put  it  in  spirits  without  investigation  in 
order  to  investigate  the  habits  of  a  worm  ?  Who  could  refuse 
a  remarkably  formed  fish  which  a  fisherman  brings,  and 
which,  possibly,  has  never  been  seen  by  naturalists,  simply 
because  he  is  studying  the  Crustacea  alone?  The  fauna  of 
this  sea,  although  brought  to  light  by  many  distinguished 
naturalists,  is  not  yet,  so  to  speak,  ripe  for  one  who  is  purely 


JOYS  AND  SORROWS  OF  THE  NATURALIST.      351 

a  specialist.  Here  the  naturalist  collects  everything  that 
comes  into  his  hands,  though  paying  more  attention  to  those 
classes  in  which  he  is  specially  interested,  and  which  are 
most  richly  represented,  and  he  leaves  it  for  time  to  decide 
when  his  labours  are  to  be  finished.  Accordingly  the  natur- 
alist remains  banished  for  years,  not  merely  for  months,  if  he 
can  prevail  on  himself  to  spend  so  much  of  his  existence  among 
the  semi-barbarous  inhabitants  of  these  uncultivated  tracts. 

No  occupation  is  free  from  its  disagreeable  concomitants, 
and  the  harmless  role  of  the  naturalist  is  no  exception  to 
the  rule.  Long  rambles  on  the  jagged  surface  of  the  reef, 
some  excoriations  of  the  skin,  a  sun-burned  nose,  an  often 
very  painful  erythema  on  the  naked  arms  and  feet,  exposed 
at  once  to  both  sun  and  salt-water,  an  involuntary  bath, 
uncomfortable  postures  in  investigating  and  observing,  are 
trifles  that  the  naturalist  makes  no  account  of  A  gigantic 
eel,  of  serpentine  aspect,  that  endeavours  to  bite  his  fingers 
and  toes,  a  crab  that  pinches  him  with  its  claws  till  the  blood 
comes,  a  fish  that  hovers  round  his  naked  feet  and  is  provided 
with  a  half-poisonous  sting,  are  bugbears  that  prove  their 
reality  but  do  not  disturb  his  composure.  But  sometimes 
his  patience  and  endurance  are  sorely  tried.  For  example, 
on  a  warm  summer  afternoon  the  naturalist,  after  hammering 
and  grubbing  for  hours  on  the  reef,  returns  heavily  laden 
to  his  house,  and  finds  on  his  threshold  a  crowd  of  children 
who  offer  him  the  marine  wonders  that  they  have  found  to- 
day in  greater  numbers  than  at  other  times,  while  fishermen 
bring  him  some  remarkable  fishes.  This  very  day  the  whole 
has,  if  possible,  to  be  carefully  examined,  determined,  taken 
note  of,  separated,  washed,  prepared,  placed  in  spirits,  or  pro- 
bably skinned  and  drawn,  for  in  the  aquarium  the  half  would 
either  eat  each  other  or  die  and  become  putrid.  Scarcely,  how- 
ever, is  he  begun  when  some  other  urgent  business  turns  up, 
or  a  loquacious  friend  finds  it  necessary  to  waste  his  time,  and 
to  his  chagrin  he  is  interrupted  in  his  self-imposed  task.  Or 
it  may  happen  that  he  examines  his  treasure-chamber  and 
observes  with  despair  that  cats,  dogs,  mice,  and  insects  have 
taken  anything  but  a  benevolent  interest  in  his  collection. 


352  UPPER  EGYPT. 

Sometimes  the  out-door  labours  of  the  naturalist  are  alto- 
gether interrupted,  as  on  the  short,  gloomy,  and  stormy  days 
of  winter  when  the  ebb-tide  uncovers  as  a  rule  only  the 
highest  projections  of  the  reef,  against  which  the  stormy 
winds  dash  the  waves;  when  the  storm  ripples  the  surface 
of  the  lagoons  and  wells,  and  the  eye  cannot  penetrate  their 
depths.  It  is  not  without  an  effort  that  the  foot  is  now 
planted  in  the  cool,  not  to  say  chilly  water,  and  an  arm  that 
has  been  dipped  shivers  in  the  winter's  breeze.  Even  the 
native  fisherman  avoids  entering  the  sea  that  is  now  so  re- 
duced in  temperature,  and  angles  either  on  the  shore  or  from 
a  boat;  or  giving  up  all  thoughts  of  catching  fish,  he  mends 
his  damaged  nets  at  home.  At  such  times  the  naturalist 
also  must  either  give  himself  up  to  idleness,  or  examine, 
study,  and  arrange  his  collections,  and  see  to  the  packing 
of  them,  this  last  and  most  difficult  labour.  And  such  days 
of  leisure  extend  to  weeks  and  months,  until  the  sun  rising 
higher  in  the  heavens  calms  the  sea  and  warms  its  waters. 

THE  INHABITANTS   OF  THE   STYLOPHORA   ZONE. 

But  we  are  standing  in  the  Stylophora  region.  The  above- 
mentioned  serpent-stars  now  spring  forth  in  greater  luxuri- 
ance than  ever  from  every  crevice;  on  the  dry  ridges  of  the 
reef  living  and  extinct  clam-shells  are  immured  in  the  rock, 
their  coarse  shells,  which  resemble  their  mother  soil,  giving 
one  rather  the  idea  of  chance-formed  nodules  than  of  organ- 
ized beings.  The  Clihanarius  signatus  here  gives  place  to 
a  green-spotted  hermit-crab,  which  now  becomes  the  leading 
crustacean.  The  Neritas  are  now  replaced  by  the  pearly 
Pharaoh's  shell  (Monodonta  Pharaonis),  the  most  charming 
of  this  sea,  and  by  elegant  Columbellas  or  pigeon-shells,  of 
which  a  black  and  yellow  striped  species  (C.  mendicaria)  is 
collected  for  the  market  in  order  to  be  imported  into  the 
Soudan  (see  p.  300).  Limpets  and  chitons,  and  the  horse- 
chestnut  shell  are  still  everywhere  to  be  met  with  here. 
In  shallow  pools  the  swelling  tentacles  of  a  sea-anemone 
(Gereus)  of  considerable  size  display  themselves,  the  rest  of 


LIFE  IN  THE  POOLS.  S53 

the  animal  being  generally  invisible.  If  an  attempt  is  made 
to  seize  it  it  withdraws  itself  quickly,  and  is  fonnd  only 
at  some  depth,  and  after  the  surrounding  sand  and  stones 
have  been  removed.  It  can  only  be  obtained  uninjured  when 
it  has  fixed  itself  upon  stones  lying  loose  in  the  sand,  and  not 
upon  the  surface  of  the  rock.  In  many  of  the  smaller  water 
holes  another  slender  Actinia  (Heptaktis),  similar  to  the  Ed- 
wardsia,  stands  upright  and  displays  its  starry  crown;  it 
withdraws  itself  even  deeper,  and  is  still  more  difficult  to  dig 
out  of  its  narrow  hole. 

LIFE  IN   THE  POOLS. 

We  lift  up  a  stone  that  lies  loose  in  one  of  the  well-like 
pools.  How  it  teems  with  life  both  externally  and  inter- 
nally! Over  its  surface  move  quickly  great  numbers  of  the 
pretty  univalves  known  as  Stomatellse,  with  their  varying 
markings  and  colours;  we  saw  these  also  in  the  sea-grass 
pools  of  the  previous  zone.  Here  sit  also  highly  coloured 
sea-lemons  (Doris),  with  their  branchy  waving  anal  bran- 
chiae, yellowish  red  Pleurobranchi,  small  five-lobed  disc-stars 
(Asteriscus),  needle-shells  {Cerithiuon),  pigeon-shells  {Colum- 
hella),  tower-shells  (Pleurotoma),  and  so-called  shore-shells 
(Eulima,  Rissoa) ;  among  bivalves  may  be  seen  small  wing- 
shells  (Avicula),  pouch-shells  {Perna),  and  young  pearl- 
shells  (Meleagrina),  as  well  as  ark-shells  (Area)  and  mussels, 
attached  by  their  byssus,  and  everywhere  oysters  are  attached 
to  and  growing  on  the  rock,  sometimes  planted  one  above 
another.  The  latter  are  generally  too  small  to  be  worth 
the  trouble  of  picking  them  off  and  eating  them.  Besides, 
the  native-born  inhabitants  consider  oyster- eating  as  a  bar- 
barous practice.  The  old  pearl-shells,  with  their  celebrated 
oriental  pearls,  occur  at  greater  depths,  and  are  obtained,  as 
already  mentioned,  by  diving. 

And  the  porous  interior  of  the  stone,  which  may  often  be 
broken  up  by  the  hand !  Not  an  opening  in  it  but  is  occu- 
pied. The  most  important  and  preponderating  tenant  here 
also  is  the  serpent-star  (Ophiocoma  erinaceus).     It  rapidly 


354  UPPER  EGYPT. 

detaches  itself  from  its  lurking-place  when  this  is  broken  into, 
allows  itself  to  fall,  and  creeps  into  the  first  suitable  hole  it 
can  find.  This  species  is  associated  here  with  another  species, 
the  Ophiocoma  Valencice,  somewhat  more  slender  and  spotted 
with  green,  and  with  a  very  small  reddish  scaly-star  (Ophio- 
lepis).  Green  or  brown  spotted  grasshopper  crabs  (Gono- 
dactylus  gonagva),  the  length  of  one's  finger,  make  their 
appearance,  but  draw  back  and  make  haste  to  get  out  of  the 
way  as  soon  as  the  explorer  notices  them.  They  run  quickly 
on  the  dry  land,  are  adepts  at  hiding  themselves,  and  if  they 
fall  into  the  water  they  paddle  away,  shooting  rapidly  along 
by  a  series  of  jerks.  When  they  are  seized  they  bend  them- 
selves round,  make  their  large  nipping  claws  fly  out  from 
their  body  with  an  audible  noise,  and  dig  them  into  the 
fingers  of  their  persecutor,  who  lets  go  his  boot}?"  more  from 
astonishment  than  pain.  Of  similar  habits  are  the  already- 
mentioned  small  long- tailed  crabs  {Alplieus),  the  species  of 
which  are  very  numerous,  and  generally  have  fixed  abodes. 
On  the  stones  here  the  Alpheus  Edwardsii  is  the  prevailing 
form.  The  joints  that  bend  inwards  the  disproportionately 
large  nipping  claws  are  very  tender,  and  the  latter  are  de- 
tached with  the  slightest  pull;  in  catching  the  animals,  there- 
fore, they  are  not  to  be  laid  hold  of  by  these. 

In  the  blocks  of  stone  there  also  conceal  themselves  those 
small  or  middle-sized  crustaceans  in  which  the  Red  Sea  is 
so  rich,  belonging  to  the  genera  Zozymus,  Actsea,  Actseodes, 
Pilodius,  Actumnus,  Chlorodius,  Pilumnus,  &c.  The  most 
common  among  them  are  the  hairy  ActcBa  hirsutissima  and 
Actceodes  tomentosus.  Motionless  sponges,  lively  coloured 
simple  and  compound  ascidians,  and  the  cell-colonies  of  the 
Bryozoa  form  with  corallines  and  nullipores  brightly  coloured 
coverings,  disguises,  and  ornaments.  The  tiny  mussel-like 
or  coin-shaped  calcareous  shells  of  the  Rhizopoda  or  Fora- 
minifera,  of  which  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  sea-sand 
consists,  cover  the  surfaces  of  the  stone  like  white  points  or 
dots,  while  the  little  tubes  of  the  tube- worms  (Serpula)  form 
wavy  streaks  on  it;  the  serpentine  dwellings  of  the  worm- 
shells  (Vermetus)  penetrate  the  block  in  all  directions.     In 


LIFE  IN  THE  POOLS.  35 0 

the  smallest  vacancies  and  passages  of  the  labyrinth  An- 
nelidas, Sipunculidse,  and  Nemertinse  have  established  them- 
selves, whether  by  simply  crawling  into  holes  already  existing 
or  excavating  them  in  the  stone  for  themselves. 

Some  worms,  such  as  Clymene  and  Terebella,  build  their 
dwellings  by  cementing  together  fragments  of  bivalve  shells, 
grains  of  sand,  and  shells  of  foraminifera,  and  retain  posses- 
sion of  these  until  their  dwellings  are  destroyed  by  violence. 
Others,  the  predaceous  worms,  namely,  employ  the  holes 
merely  as  hiding-places,  and  seek  their  prey  abroad.  A  worm 
of  considerable  size  often  met  with  (Notopygus)  at  the  least 
touch  brings  into  play  its  stings,  which  resemble  silky  tufts; 
these  bore  with  their  barbed  points  into  the  skin  of  the 
person  touching  it,  and  produce. a  sharp  stinging  pain.  Flat 
annulose  worms  with  ''wings,"  or  imbricated  worms  of  a 
brick  red  or  green  colour  (Polynoe),  attach  themselves  to  the 
stones  as  if  by  the  force  of  suction,  like  the  limpets.  A  large 
round  rose-coloured  annelid  (Dasybranchus)  lies  in  the  rock 
wound  up  in  a  clew,  and  almost  always  gives  off  pieces  of  its 
body  when  it  is  pulled  or  even  disturbed,  like  the  ribbon- 
worms  {Neraertes).  Still  more  sensitive  are  the  nimble  Syllis, 
each  joint  of  which  gives  out  in  the  darkness,  and  often  even 
in  the  daytime,  a  splendid  green  or  blue  light.  Like  the 
flat- worms  (Planarida),  these  live  when  divided  into  pieces, 
each  piece  commencing  a  separate  existence. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  rocks  in  these  pools  is  generally 
covered  with  shaggy  sea-weed,  among  which  live  small 
amphipodous  crustaceans,  as  well  as  crabs  with  remarkable 
beaked  carapaces  belonging  to  such  genera  as  Mensethius, 
Pisa,  Cyclax,  Huenia,  &c.  The  uneven  or  hairy  surface  of 
the  carapace  and  feet  of  these  forms  is  covered  with  a  flour- 
ishing growth  of  sea-weed  or  grasses,  or  if  clean  and  smooth 
it  takes  on  the  colour  of  the  plants  among  which  these  crabs 
live,  and  in  one  and  the  same  species  will  vary  from  dai-k- 
brown  to  emerald-green.  From  the  sand  that  lies  scattered 
among  the  sea-weeds  project  crabs  (Micippe)  of  a  hideous 
form  and  grayish  colour,  scarcely  to  be  recognized  as  living 
creatures, — so  ugly,  indeed,  that  in  an  aesthetic  system  of  clas- 


356  UPPER  EGYPT. 

sification  they  would  be  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale  when 
compared  with  other  representatives  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
These  animals  that  take  on  an  appearance  assimilating  them 
to  their  surroundings  are  surpassed  in  cunning  by  the  woolly 
crab  (Dromia),  which  covers  the  naked  parts  of  its  somewhat 
hairy  back  with  a  piece  of  sponge  bent  into  shape  or  a  frond 
of  sea-weed  which  the  far  extended  hind-foot  has  constantly 
to  keep  in  position,  and  thus  the  animal  deceives  its  greedy 
enemies  by  counterfeiting  the  appearance  of  an  object  which 
they  do  not  use  as  food. 

A  NOCTURNAL  VISIT  TO  THE  REEF. 

A  nocturnal  promenade  on  the  reef  at  ebb-tide,  when  the 
stick  stirs  up  a  thousand  sparks  in  the  pools,  and  every  foot- 
step leaves  a  phosphorous  track  behind,  is  truly  a  wonderful 
experience.  This  phosphorescence  is  mainly  due  to  the 
destruction  of  worms  or  gelatinous  animals  of  a  very  low 
organization  (N'octiluca),  and  doubtless  also  to  scattered  par- 
ticles of  animal  matter  of  various  kinds  in  a  state  of  decay. 
When  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  thickly  covered  with  such 
animalcula  over  a  considerable  area  the  celebrated  "lumino- 
sity of  the  sea"  is  produced.  It  is  well  known  that  when  it 
is  filtered,  and  the  animalcules  thus  removed,  the  sea-water 
is  no  longer  luminous.  Here  and  there,  too,  at  a  greater  or 
lesser  depth,  slowly  swims  a  large  luminous  body  which 
proves  to  be  a  medusa ;  the  great  cat-like  eyes  of  the  Pria- 
can thus  also  gleam  upwards;  and  large  shining  balls  probably 
belonging  to  the  corals  appear. 

A  BLOCK  OF  STONE. 

A  huge  block  of  stone  which  has  been  detached  by  mighty 
storm- waves  or  by  the  hand  of  man  from  the  region  of  the 
reef-slope,  and  has  been  rolled  into  this  quieter  zone,  rests  in  a 
slight  depression  of  the  reef,  the  edges  of  which  now  afibrd 
it  a  secure  support.  Its  upper  surface,  only  occasionally 
washed  by  the  waves  at  high  water,  rises  naked,  gray,  and 


A  BLOCK  OF  STONE.  857 

dry  above  the  surface.  On  this  surface  needle-shells,  shore- 
shells  {Euliraa,  Rissoa),  and  tiny  hermit-crabs  sun  themselves, 
and  the  small  but  active  rock-crab  (Nautilograpsus  minutus) 
clambers  about.  The  last  occurs  in  the  greatest  abundance 
over  the  whole  of  this  zone  where  it  is  laid  dry,  popping  out 
of  one  hole  and  into  another;  it  is  the  representative  here  of 
the  larger  Grapsus  of  the  shore.  If  we  examine  the  holes 
and  crevices  of  the  block  that  still  remain  under  water,  a  few 
small  fishes  dart  out,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  families  of  blen- 
nies  and  gobies  (Salarias,  Blennius,  Gobius,  Eleotris),  while 
small  and  often  strangely-shaped  long-tailed  decapods  also 
hop  into  the  light  of  day  {Palcemon,  Lysmata,  Hippolyte, 
Athanas).  The  sides  of  the  crevices  are  behung  with  hairy 
trumpet-shells  (Tritonium  pileare),  frog-shells  (Ranella), 
sea-ears  (Haliotis),  small  sea-cucumbers  {Holothuria  and 
Sporadipus),  and  ark-shells  (Area)-,  here,  too,  may  be  ob- 
tained in  particular  abundance  the  inexhaustible  sea-lemons 
(Doris),  already  mentioned  repeatedly.  Oysters,  ascidians, 
and  sponges  cover  and  colour  the  walls  of  the  clefts.  One 
after  another  certain  bodies  let  themselves  fall  down  into 
the  water;  these  are  the  inevitable  serpent-stars  (Ophio- 
€oma  erinaceus),  which  are  also  accompanied  by  certain 
other  species  (Ophiocoma  elegans  and  Valencice),  by  a  scaly 
serpent-star  (Ophiolepis  Cincta),  the  already-mentioned  egg- 
urchin  (JSchinometra),  and  common  apple-like  sea-urchins 
{Echinus)  either  white  or  brightly  coloured.  If  we  roll  the 
stone  over  we  will  often  find,  in  addition  to  the  above-men- 
tioned creatures,  some  very  large-sized  lobsters  (Palinurus). 
The  latter,  however,  are  best  caught  at  night  when  they 
leave  their  lurking-places.  Such  stones  also  afibrd  a  hiding- 
place  for  the  brownish -red  octopus  or  sea-polyp,  which,  when 
discovered,  swims  off*  at  once,  and  if  the  danger  is  imminent 
discolours  the  water  with  its  ink.  It  is  not  easy  to  master 
this  powerful  and  slippery  creature;  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  bear  the  clinging  of  its  sucking  arms  to  the  skin.  Under 
the  block  we  are  sure  to  find  also  some  beautiful  though 
common  porcelain-shells  (Cyprcea).  Of  these  there  are  in 
this  sea  more  than  a  dozen  species,  from  the  large  marketable 


;j58  upper   EGYPT. 

Gyprcea  pantherina  or  pantber-shell,  to  the  small  Cyprcea 
trivia.  With  these  the  cone-shells  {Conns),  which  are  found 
from  a  line  to  a  span  in  length,  vie  in  variety,  and  in  some 
cases  also  in  beauty.  Provided  with  a  strong  shell  these 
sluggish  animals  withstand  the  assaults  of  the  waves  as  well 
as  attacks  from  other  quarters.  They  love  the  hottest  water, 
and  therefore  seldom  conceal  themselves  at  low  tide,  but  lie 
exposed  and  almost  motionless  in  small  shallow  depressions 
in  the  sand. 

REEF-POOLS. 

Let  us  give  up  work  for  a  time,  and  gaze  quietly  into  one 
of  the  2  to  4  feet  deep  pools  or  wells.  The  circular  edges  of 
these  are  overgrown  with  algae  of  all  kinds — flat  and  crust- 
like, high  and  bushy,  soft  and  watery,  cartilaginous,  or  hard 
as  a  stone,  green,  brown,  and  reddish,  moss-like  or  fern-like, 
fruit-bearing  and  fruitless.  Here  and  there  sprouts  the  coral 
known  as  Stylophora,  yellowish-brown  or  reddish  in  colour, 
in  many  cases  small  and  slender,  but  forming  stronger  and 
broader  stony  bushes  the  nearer  it  approaches  the  breakers 
and  the  open  sea.  While  in  the  cells  of  the  upper  branches 
life  is  exuberant,  and  new  matter  is  rapidly  formed,  the  coral 
animals  die  out  gradually  towards  the  root,  and  dark,  dirty 
algae  and  corallines  cover  the  extinct  generations  like  a  wind- 
ing-sheet. Between  the  walls  of  the  pools  we  see  zigzags  and 
waves,  some  of  them  a  span  and  a  half  long,  blue,  green,  or 
spotted  with  bright  brown,  gleaming  out  in  a  wonderful 
mantier  from  beneath  the  water ;  they  belong  to  the  mantle  of 
the  large  Tridacna,  which,  fixed  in  some  crevice  of  the  rock, 
opens  its  valves  very  readily.  Half  hidden  under  the  over- 
hanging walls  of  the  pools  lie  deep-black  gleaming  spheres, 
from  which  radiate  lances  a  span  long  and  as  fine  as  a  needle, 
while  between  these  appear  sky-blue  gleaming  lines  and  points 
running  perpendicularly  over  the  surface  of  the  sphere.  Above, 
at  one  of  the  poles  of  the  sphere,  a  black  club  with  a  cinnabar- 
red  extremity  turns  round.  This  is  the  diadem  sea-urchin  {Bia- 
dema  Savignyi),  and  the  revolving  club  its  rectum.  Raised 
and  enlarged  by  the  transparent  covering  of  water  above 


EEEF-POOLS.  359 

it,  tins  creature  affords,  with  all  these  attractions,  as  beauti- 
ful a  sight  as  its  pointed,  brittle  spines,  with  their  almost 
microscopical  circle  of  prickles,  produce  violent  burning  pains 
when  they  have  penetrated  the  skin  of  the  fingers.  The  long 
spines  remain  always  under  water,  and  accordingly  the  body 
lies  at  a  certain  depth.  Unfortunately  the  spines  fall  on 
drying,  and  are  very  difficult  to  keep  uninjured,  so  that  these 
animals  are  little  adapted  to  transportation.  The  bottom  of 
the  pool  is  covered  with  loose  stones  of  various  sizes  with  sand 
between,  and  here,  too,  there  sometimes  rise  phanerogamous 
grasses,  algae,  and  corals.  This  is  where  the  sea-urchins 
(Echinodermata)  are  found  in  greatest  abundance.  Here, 
stretched  out  openly,  lies  comfortably  at  rest,  a  sea-cucumber 
(Holothuria  vagahunda)  which  appears  black,  but,  as  the  stain 
on  the  fingers  that  touch  it  testifies,  is  in  reality  purplish-black; 
it  is  surrounded  by  grains  of  sand  either  single  or  closely  adher- 
ing together,  and  grows  to  the  length  of  two  spans.  Another 
and  still  larger  Holothuria,  with  great  yellow  lateral  spots, 
from  its  plasticity  appears  quite  a  prodigy,  in  turns  assuming 
a  sausage  shape  or  that  of  a  disc  or  loaf  of  bread.  All  these 
holothurias  are  disposed  to  commit  suicide;  as  soon  as  they  are 
withdrawn  from  their  usual  conditions  of  life  they  force  their 
intestines  out  at  their  anal  opening,  diffusing  at  the  same 
time  a  rank  disagreeable  smell,  or  they  divest  themselves  of 
their  epidermis  only,  a  proceeding  which  brings  about  their 
dissolution  with  equal  rapidity.  The  black  species  of  holo- 
thurias are  so  rigid  and  motionless  that  they  are  readily  con- 
founded with  the  species  of  bathing  sponge  that  occurs  here, 
which  is  quite  black  in  its  fresh  state,  and  assumes  all  possible 
forms.  The  sponges  of  commerce  are  yellowish  or  gray  in 
colour  because  they  have  been  subjected  to  repeated  washings 
and  bleachings.  Here  we  see  also  the  Synapta,  which  at  one 
time  resembles  a  water-skin  filled  with  water,  at  another 
hanks  in  its  body  at  intervals,  so  as  to  make  it  resemble  the 
large  intestine  in  man,  and  according  to  the  extent  of  the 
contraction  it  subjects  itself  to,  appears  as  a  wide  bag  the 
length  of  one's  arm,  or  as  a  thin  cord.  When  touched  by  the 
fingers  its  upper  surface  clings  disagreeably  to  the  skin,  by 


860  UPPER   EGYPT. 

means  of  little  anchor-shaped  projections.  It  can  cover  itself 
up  with  sand  and  rubbish  on  occasion.  In  its  company  are 
found  also  various  kinds  of  beautiful  echinodermata,  in.  some 
cases  lying  exposed,  in  others  under  stones  or  in  crevices  of 
the  rock;  we  may  mention  the  ''bride  of  the  sea"  or  the 
comb-star  (Asteropecten),  the  sea- turban  (Cidaris),  the  shield- 
urchin  (Clypeaster),  and  the  warty-star  (Acrocladia  mamil- 
lata),  as  well  as  the  Ophidiaster  Ehrenhergi,  which,  from 
the  abortion  of  individual  arms,  often  assumes  singular 
shapes,  and  the  Scytaster,  which  is  of  a  beautiful  scarlet 
colour,  like  the  star  of  some  order  of  knighthood,  but  unfor- 
tunately soon  fades. 

FISH  OF  THE  POOLS. 

As  in  the  shore  zone  the  fish  in  these  pools  still  continue 
to  consist  chiefly  of  gobies  and  blennies.  These  fish  are  very 
cautious  and  cunning,  and  on  the  approach  of  any  person 
conceal  themselves  immediately.  It  is  only  when  one 
approaches  slowly  and  seats  himself  quietly  that  they  allow 
themselves  to  be  looked  at,  as  they  nibble  and  feed  upon  the 
sea-weed,  or  half  swimming  half  leaping  dart  this  way  and 
that  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  sometimes  also  slipping  into 
crevices  and  worm-holes,  and  roguishly  showing  their  heads 
peeping  out;  while,  at  the  last  extremity  of  danger,  as  we 
have  seen  in  the  case  of  various  other  animals,  they  spring 
out  of  their  pool  and  scramble  somehow  over  the  dry  ground 
into  another.  The  short  arm-like  and  stunted  ventral  fins 
may  stand  these  leaping  fishes  in  good  stead  when  they 
engage  in  such  gymnastic  feats.  The  best  leaper  is  the 
Sidarias  tridactylus.  In  these  pools  we  also  meet  with 
several  of  the  finely-coloured  coral-fish  of  the  family  of  the 
ctenoid-scaled  labroid  or  wrasse-like  fishes  {Lahroideiy 
Ctenoidei,  or  Pomacentridce),  especially  young  Glyphisodons, 
gray  or  black  and  yellow  striped,  and  the  small  golden 
Colibri  among  fishes,  the  Glyphisodon  antjerius,  with  its 
gleaming  blue  or  green  dorsal  stripe.  These  small  fishes  are 
shy  and  difficult  to  catch.     Small  silvery  fishes,  scarcely  an 


FAUNA  OF  THE   STYLOPHOKA  BUSHES.  361 

inch  in  length  (ATyxus),  keep  circling  about  constantly  at  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  rival  in  brilliance  the  ripples  that 
glance  under  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Here  we  see  a  serpent- 
like creature  winding  through  the  pool  and  hiding  itself  in  a 
crevice,  from  which  it  peeps  out  after  a  little  with  its  long- 
snouted  head,  and  gives  a  steady  gaze.  It  is  no  serpent, 
however,  only  an  eel,  but  the  pet  aversion  of  the  reef-fisher- 
man for  all  that.  From  pure  enmity  the  natives  condemn 
to  death  every  individual  they  meet  with;  to  eat  them  they 
could  never  bring  themselves.  These  creatures  can  also 
wriggle  their  way  very  well  over  dry  ground. 

FAUNA   OF  THE  STYLOPHOEA  BUSHES. 

A  piece  of  work  still  remains  to  be  done,  one  of  the  most 
profitable  of  all  the  labours  that  can  be  carried  on  on  the  reef, 
viz.  to  disentangle  and  break  down  the  corals  known  by  the 
name  of  Stylophora.  The  spaces  between  the  branches  and 
twigs  of  these  are  selected  as  places  of  abode  by  marine  crea- 
tures of  all  kinds,  but  more  particularly  by  small  crabs  and 
other  crustaceans.  Besides  many  of  the  sorts  that  we  have 
already  noted  as  inhabiting  the  stones  of  the  pools  (such  as 
Gonodactylus,  Alpheus,  Actsea,  Zozymus,  Chlorodius,  besides 
Columbella,  Cerithium,  small  Cones,  Ascidians,  and  sponges) 
there  lives  here  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  fauna  which  can 
be  met  with  scarcely  anywhere  else.  It  consists  chiefly  of 
certain  species  of  small  square-shelled  crabs  belonging  to  the 
genus  Trapezia,  which  cling  so  closely  with  their  claws  to 
the  branches  of  the  corals,  or  climb  about  among  them  so 
cleverly  that  a  person  can  get  hold  of  them  only  by  breaking 
down  the  corals.  Here  also  sits  the  slimy  and  sluggish 
crab  Cymo,  which  adheres  still  more  firmly  to  the  corals. 
The  observer  will  seldom  miss  the  small  long-tailed  crabs, 
Harpilius,  Palsemon,  Athanas,  the  fantastically  ornamented 
Hippolyte,  and  especially  a  bright  red  Alpheus.  Here  also 
the  small  univalve  Purpura  madreporarum  makes  for  itself 
a  small  protuberance,  on  which  it  sits  closely  adhering.  The 
serpent-stars  so  often  mentioned  (Ophiocoma  erinaceus  and 


o62  TIPPER   EGYPT. 

Scolopendrina)  are  here  remarkably  rare;  instead  of  these 
we  find  in  abundance  the  black  and  yellow  Ophiocoma  ele- 
gans,  and  the  green  Ophiocoma  Valencice.  If  we  lift  up  one 
of  these  bushes  quickly  and  let  the  brittle  mass  fall  on  the 
ground  and  break  in  pieces,  a  multitude  of  small  fishes  are 
sure  to  hop  out,  such  as  Eleotris  and  Gobiosoma,  and  the 
Gohius  ecJdnocephaluSj  which  is  a  form  very  characteristic  of 
these  bushes.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  get  one's  hands  on 
all  these  little  creatures  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right 
place,  especially  the  crabs.  Unless  caution  is  employed  the 
collector  will  see  with  sorrow  that  these  have  suffered  the 
loss  of  an  arm  or  a  feeler.  When  the  branches  of  the  corals 
are  broken,  in  the  central  mass  of  a  great  many,  indeed  the 
most  of  them,  a  flattish  cavity  is  seen,  which  a  date-shell  fills 
so  completely  as  to  have  but  very  little  room  to  move.  Only 
a  comparatively  small  aperture  leads  from  the  outside  into 
this  strange  abode. 

TRANSITION   OR  PRJil-CORAL  REGION. 

We  move  across  the  reef  a  little  farther  in  the  direction  of 
the  sea,  and  enter  upon  a  region  which  bears  to  the  Stylophora 
zone  the  same  relationship  as  the  sea-grass  zone  to  the  shore 
zone,  that  is,  it  is  a  transition  district.  Its  external  appear- 
ance is  still  essentially  the  same,  only  this  region  is  almost 
always  covered  by  the  sea,  and  can  only  be  walked  upon  at 
the  very  low  tides  of  the  after-summer.  The  water  is  in 
greater  commotion,  and  serves  as  the  fresh  source  of  an  active 
coral-life;  the  waves  of  the  surf  reach  as  far  as  this,  but  their 
strength  is  already  broken  on  the  edge  of  the  reef  The 
Stylophora  corals  continue  to  prevail  universally,  and  thrive 
still  better  than  nearer  the  land.  The  other  corallines  gen- 
erally form  layers,  spheres,  and  protuberances,  which,  like 
a  frieze,  adorn  the  borders  of  the  pools  that  now  become 
deeper  and  deeper,  or  they  grow  up  from  the  bottom  of  the 
pools,  or  spring  here  and  there  from  the  upper  surface  of  the 
reef  To  this  region  belong  many  star-corals  (Helidstrcea, 
Solenastrcea,  Leptastrcea),  mesh-corals  (Porites),  honey-comb 


CORAL  ZONE  PROPER  OR  SURF  ZONE.        863 

corals  (Favia),  brain-corals  (Mceandrina),  many  millepore 
corals  (Millepora),  and  the  well-known  organ-pipe  coral 
(Tuhipora),  with  its  purplish-red  stone  pipes.  The  rest  of 
the  fauna  of  this  region  is  characterized  by  a  mingling  of  the 
fauna  of  the  previous  with  that  of  the  following  zone. 

CORAL  ZONE  PROPER  OR  SURF  ZONE. 

The  appearance  and  conformation  of  the  reef  now  show  a 
remarkable  change.  The  ground  is  now  to  some  extent  con- 
verted into  a  slippery  sea- weed  steppe,  and  the  naked  feet,  as 
they  slip  among  the  luxuriant  vegetation,  are  everywhere 
threatened  by  the  sharp  edges  of  the  apertures  of  the  worm- 
shells,  the  tubes  of  which  grow  as  it  were  in  a  piece  with  the 
rock.  Among  the  plants  we  are  struck  by  a  sea- weed  that 
gleams  with  a  blue  colour;  but  when  it  is  withdrawn  from 
the  water  the  gleaminor  ceases,  and,  like  most  other  sea- weeds, 
it  appears  brown.  The  pools  now  become  deeper,  and  often 
form  abysses  with  overhanging  edges,  to  the  bottom  of 
which  the  eye  cannot  penetrate.  These  abysses  have  often 
subterranean  communications  with  one  another  and  the  open 
sea,  and  this  portion  of  the  reef  for  the  most  part  manifests 
itself  as  the  rocky  covering  of  a  grand  system  of  caves  open- 
ing to  the  upper  world  by  clefts  and  circular  crater-like  holes. 
The  swell  and  heaving  of  the  open  sea,  though  broken  to  some 
extent,  is  continued  through  these  ocean  caves,  and  produces 
in  the  openings  of  the  rock  an  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  the 
water  at  regular  intervals,  combined  with  a  frightful  hollow 
gurgling  and  hissing.  When  the  sea  is  at  rest,  however,  the 
water  in  these  dreadful  abysses  also  remains  at  rest,  and  from 
some  secure  stand-point  on  the  reef  the  eye  can  penetrate 
unimpeded  far  down  into  the  transparent  depths.  Nowhere 
can  one  contemplate  the  life  of  the  corals  and  what  belongs  to 
it  more  quietly  and  comfortably  than  here,  although  he  has  to 
lie  on  his  belly — a  trifling  matter  for  the  naturalist — and  hold 
his  magnifying-glass  at  the  point  of  his  nose  above  a  coral  bush. 
Such  days,  however,  when  the  tide  is  so  low  as  to  lay  the 
reef  quite  bare  even  to  the  outer  edge,  and  when  the  wind 


S64  UPPER  EGYPT. 

at  the  same  time  is  still,  are  extremely  rare,  and  do  not  occur 
even  once  a  year.  In  order  to  examine  the  coral  world  on 
the  large  scale  it  is  better  to  make  use  of  a  boat.  For  the 
present  we  only  remark  that  on  the  accessible  portion  of  the 
surf  zone  the  madrepore  coral  has  become  the  prevailing  coral, 
without,  however,  completely  crushing  out  the  Stylophora, 
and  we  take  advantage  of  the  time  during  which  the  reef  is 
uncovered  to  investigate  the  remaining  fauna. 

FAUNA  OF  THE  SURF  ZONE. 

The  serpent-star  (Ophiocoma  erinaceus)  has  now  entirely 
disappeared,  and  instead  of  it  we  find  curling  about  among 
the  rocks  the  already-mentioned  Ophiocoona  Valencice  and 
other  genera  of  serpent- stars,  such  as  Ophiothrix  and  Ophio- 
nyx.  The  green-spotted  hermit-crab  is  still  also  found,  but 
never  the  Glihanarius  signatus.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
miniature  species  of  this  genus  of  the  Paguri  are  common. 
A  giant  species  (Pagurus  tinctor)  is  often  found  in  large 
univalve  shells,  such  as  the  tun-shell  (Boliurti)  or  the  triton's 
horn  (Tritoniurji),  on  the  outside  of  which  there  is  regularly 
seated  a  certain  kind  of  sea-anemone  {Adamsia),  sometimes 
in  large  numbers,  while  between  the  anemones  are  frequently 
shells  of  the  family  Capuloidye.  Here,  therefore,  we  see  a 
colony  of  several  different  creatures  living  together.  Between 
the  two  regular  inhabitants  of  these  shells  there  is  a  remark- 
able bond  of  connection.  With  regard  to  the  northern  species 
Mr.  Gosse  has  made  the  interesting  discovery  that  the  crab 
lifts  with  its  nipping  claws  the  sea-anemone  on  to  the  shells 
in  which  it  wishes  to  live,  so  that  the  latter  animal  must  be 
of  service  to  it  in  some  respect  or  other,  though  we  do  not 
yet  know  in  what.  The  sea-anemone  seems  to  make  use  of 
its  dwelling-place  as  a  means  of  locomotion,  so  that  it  may 
be  carried  to  places  w^here  there  is  food  both  for  it  and  the 
crab,  or  may  also,  so  to  speak,  enjoy  change  of  air;  the  crab, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  allow  the  actinia  to  catch  parasites 
that  would  annoy  it,  though  this  certainly  remains  to  be 
proved.   The  Adamsia  cannot  live  free,  however,  and  is  found 


FAUNA  OF  THE  SURF  ZONE.  365 

sometimes  on  stones,  though  less  frequently  than  on  the 
shells  inhabited  by  the  hermit-crab.  At  small  depths  and  in 
clefts  lie  large  and  small  species  of  the  genera  Ricinula,  Fas- 
ciolaria,  Turbinella  (chank-shells),  Turbo  and  Trochus  (angu- 
lar and  round-mouthed  top-shells),  all  with  thick  shells  which, 
without  protection,  set  at  nought  the  breakers.  A  large  and 
beautiful  blue  arcuated  crab  (Zozymus  ceneus)  is  common 
here,  exposing  itself  without  protection  to  the  wash  of  the 
surf.  The  higher  rocks,  which  on  the  retiring  of  the  waves 
are  periodically  exposed  to  the  air,  are  often  covered  with  a 
multitude  of  sea-acorns  {Balanus),  Under  the  covering  of 
sea-weed  new  forms  of  pointed  crabs  conceal  themselves 
{Gyclax,  Stenocinops,  Pseudomicippe).  Over  crevices  in  the 
rock  gigantic  sea-anemones,  such  as  Biscosoona  giganteuim, 
spread  themselves  out  along  with  the  social  Thalassianthus 
aster;  it  is  only  with  difficulty  that  they  can  be  extracted 
from  the  rock.  The  rare  gigantic  annelid,  Eunice  gigantea, 
here  occasionally  shows  itself,  rapidly  crawling  out  of  sight 
again  like  a  serpent,  and  the  collector  considers  it  quite  a 
master-stroke  to  lay  hands  on  it  before  it  disappears  into  its 
unfathomable  hiding-places. 

The  best  spots  for  the  collector  here  also  are  under  stones 
and  between  the  branches  of  the  corals.  Loose  stones  that 
would  only  require  to  be  turned  over  in  order  to  get  at  the 
booty  beneath  are  not  found  here  at  all,  being  hurled  back 
to  the  Stylophora  zone  by  the  force  of  the  waves,  or  flung 
into  the  depths  of  the  rocky  chasms.  To  be  sure  numerous 
blocks  of  stone  with  masses  of  living  and  growing  coral  lie 
mingled  together  in  wild  confusion,  but  all  are  solidly  attached 
to  the  rock  and  to  one  another,  no  doubt  by  the  action  of 
the  superabundant  calcareous  elements  contained  in  the  sea- 
water,  which  supplies  the  material  of  which  the  coral  rocks 
are  built.  The  attachment  at  first  is  often  only  a  loose  one, 
many  holes  and  crevices,  remaining  between  the  block  and 
the  rock  beneath,  and  furnishing  shelter  for  a  multitude  of 
living  beings  whose  tender  bodies  could  not  withstand  the 
unbroken  force  of  the  waves.  Here  is  the  home  of  a  multi- 
tude of  small  round  crabs,  generally  of  different  species  and 


S66  UPPEK  EGYPT. 

genera  from  those  inhabiting  the  preceding  zones.  New 
annelids  of  changing  hues,  and  various  genera  allied  to  the 
shrimps  now  make  their  appearance.  Sometimes  by  the 
removal  of  the  blocks  a  narrow  cleft  is  disclosed,  the  sides  of 
which  are  closely  covered  and  overgrown  with  moss-like 
Bryozoa,  mossy  sea-firs  (Sertularice),  small  polyp-colonies  of 
chalky  or  leathery  consistence  (Coenopsammia  and  Cilicia 
being  of  the  former  description,  Zoanthus  and  Polyzoa  of  the 
latter),  a  small  red  Gorgonia  (Mopsia  Erythrcea),  small  social 
actinias,  sponges,  and  ascidians.  Oysters,  ark-shells,  and 
thorny-oysters  {Spondylus)  have  also  attached  themselves 
to  the  walls,  and  here  have  taken  refuge  the  delicate  feather- 
stars  which  live  free  but  do  not  swim. 

THE  INHABITANTS  OF  THE  COKALS. 

The  fauna  for  which  the  Stylophora  corals  afford  hiding- 
places  is  not  much  altered  here,  and  with  it  that  of  the  bushy 
cup-star  corals  (Pocillopora)  agrees.  Similar,  but  still  with 
distinct  characteristics,  is  the  madrepore  coral  (Madrepora). 
Instead  of  the  quadrangular-shaped  crabs  {Trapezia)  we  find 
here  the  similar  genus  Tetralia;  the  shrimp-like  crustaceans 
are  also  represented  by  different  but  allied  genera.  Between 
the  branches  of  the  fragile  bush-corals  (Xenia)  a  small  crab 
of  the  genus  Camptonyx  is  seldom  absent.  The  massy  corals 
are  not  well  suited  for  hiding-places,  but  nevertheless  a 
number  of  creatures  of  very  diverse  forms  have  obtained  a 
lodgment  in  their  interior.  To  these  belong^  the  Mao^ilus, 
which  prefers  for  its  abode  certain  star-corals  (Leptastrcea) 
and  mseandrine  corals  {Godoria),  and  along  with  these  is 
already  found  in  the  transition  zone.  The  young  Magilus,  a 
grayish  dome-shaped  shell,  lies  loose  in  a  smooth  dome-shaped 
cavity  not  much  below  the  surface  of  the  coral  colony,  like 
the  date-shell  in  the  Stylophora,  and  this  cavity  communi- 
cates with  the  surface,  where  the  coral-stars  open,  by  means 
of  a  small  hole  or  narrow  canal.  The  older  ones,  such  as  are 
seen  in  particular  in  the  mseandrine  corals,  lie  deeper,  and 
through  the   solid   substance  of  the   mass,  from  the  shell 


THE  CORAL  SLOPE.  367 

proper  to  the  surface,  a  thick  tube  variously  bent  and  twisted 
extends.  This  tube  also  lies  loosely  in  its  canal;  it  is  very 
brittle,  and  difficult  to  procure  whole  by  breaking  up  the 
coral  rock.  After  the  animal  has  once  penetrated  the  coral, 
accordingly,  no  farther  boring  takes  place,  it  simply  adds  to 
its  tube  according  as  the  surface  of  the  coral  rises,  and  as  the 
shell  grows  larger  the  hole  in  which  it  lies  also  enlarges. 

Another  parasite  on,  or  at  least  dweller  in,  the  coral  is  an 
abnormally-shaped  crab,  by  name  Cryptochirus,  which  not 
long  ago  was  brought  into  notice  by  Heller.  It  ensconces 
itself,  like  the  worm-shell  (Vermetus),  in  a  short  cylindrical 
tube  made  by  itself,  and  penetrating  perpendicularly  from  the 
surface  of  the  coral.  Its  similarity  with  the  worm-shell  is  all 
the  greater  from  the  fact  that  the  shield-formed  head  of  the 
crab  forms  externally  a  kind  of  operculum  closing  the  aper- 
ture. Its  abodes  are  almost  always  observed  in  the  rounded 
masses  of  coral,  whether  it  be  that  it  chooses  these,  or  that  it 
disturbs  the  life  of  the  corals  in  its  vicinity,  and  so  pro- 
duces this  rounded  conformation. 

The  dwelling  of  a  Serpula  of  considerable  size  is  similar ; 
but  the  latter  penetrates  much  deeper  into  the  rock,  and  is 
found  in  bushy  and  massive  corals.  The  living  animal  forms 
a  beautiful  sight  when,  protruding  the  anterior  part  of  its 
body,  it  bathes  its  brightly-coloured  spiral  gills  or  branchiae 
ill  the  water.  In  radiate  corals  (especially  Goniastroea)  a 
cirrhipede  of  the  genus  Pyrgoma  has  imbedded  the  tubular 
portion  of  its  shell;  the  upper  portion  forms  elliptic  warts 
Avhich  much  resemble  the  stars  of  the  corals. 

THE  CORAL  SLOPE. 

In  order  to  inspect  the  realm  of  corals  and  the  treasures  of 
the  deep  sea  leisurely  and  at  our  ease,  though  our  glance 
must  be  somewhat  unsteady,  we  step  on  board  a  boat  and 
proceed  to  the  reef  The  sea  must  be  perfectly  quiet,  other- 
wise no  boatman  would  be  so  rash  as  to  voluntarily  steer  his 
craft  towards  the  breakers  of  the  reef,  and  the  surface  must 
be  as  smooth  as  a  mirror,  the  least  ripple  rendering  it  impos- 


368  UPPER  EGYPT. 

sible  to  see  down  into  the  depths.  The  lower  the  tide  is  too, 
the  better  objects  are  seen,  and  it  will  contribute  to  the  same 
result  if  a  little  oil  is  poured  on  the  surface. 

The  line  of  the  declivity  runs  on  the  whole  pretty  nearly 
parallel  to  the  shore;  where  the  latter  exhibits  an  indentation 
of  any  size  there  is  also  a  corresponding  one  in  the  slope-line. 
At  particular  points,  to  be  sure,  there  is  not  such  a  close  cor- 
respondence, the  breadth  of  the  reef  varying  between  200 
and  400  paces.  The  slope-line  also  is  much  more  winding 
and  indented.  Where  the  reef  is  interrupted  by  a  harbour, 
the  slope-line  forms  a  bend  so  as  to  almost  reach  the  shore, 
while  the  slope  gradually  diminishes  in  depth  and  coral  life 
ceases.  The  slope  is  at  some  points  steep  and  precipitous, 
perhaps  even  forms  an  overhanging  cliff,  at  other  points  it 
sinks  gradually,  or  in  the  form  of  terraces,  towards  the  open 
sea.  The  depth  of  the  water,  measuring  from  the  surface  of 
the  reef,  may  average  from  5  to  8  fathoms,  so  that  the  eye 
can  generally  perceive  the  sandy  bottom  immediately  in 
front  of  the  reef;  the  bottom  rapidly  sinks,  however,  and  at 
the  distance  of  a  few  paces  from  the  reef  seawards  we  see 
only  what  for  the  eye  are  blue  unfathomable  depths. 

This  slope,  then,  like  the  staging  of  a  greenhouse,  is  entirety 
covered  with  those  brightly-coloured  many-formed  animal 
growths  which  we  call  corals,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  it 
entirely  consists  of  these  or  their  remains,  bare  and  lifeless 
blocks  on  which  new  generations  begin  to  build,  while  around 
them  swarm  and  browse  the  coral  fishes,  so  distinguished  for 
splendour  of  colouring  and  strangeness  of  form.  "As  hum- 
ming-birds sport  around  the  plants  of  the  tropics,  so  also  small 
fishes,  scarcely  an  inch  in  length  and  never  growing  larger, 
but  resplendent  with  gold,  silver,  purple,  and  azure,  sport 
around  the  flower-like  corals,  on  the  leaf-like  prehensile  arms 
of  which  feed  beautifully  tinted  shell-less  and  strangely-shaped 
snails  (jEolidce),  like  the  caterpillars  and  garden-snails  on  the 
leaves  of  plants.''^  All  this  is  enveloped  in  the  magic  mantle 
of  the  transparent  briny  flood,  which,  by  peculiar  effects  of 
refraction,  raises  and  magnifies  the  distant  forms,  and  lends 
^Ehrenberg  Ueber  die  KorallenbdnJce,  1832. 


THE   CORAL  SLOPE.  369 

them  colours  so  deceptive  that,  when  taken  from  the  water, 
they  can  scarcely  be  recognized.  We  feel  drawn  downwards 
as  it  were  by  a  mysterious  power  towards  these  objects,  appa- 
rently so  near,  yet  rendered  by  the  foreign  element  so  distant 
and  unattainable,  and  we  gaze  dreamily  into  the  depths,  sunk 
in  nameless  feelings  and  dim  impressions  regarding  fairy 
beings  flitting  about  in  the  gardens  of  some  marine  paradise. 
Against  such  ideas  even  the  Arabian  fisherman,  unsentimental 
as  he  is,  is  not  quite  proof;  apart  from  the  elephantine  "sea- 
maiden" (Halicore  cetacea),  which  can  be  caught  and  skinned, 
for  him,  too,  there  are  below  the  waters  charming  genii  who 
are  eager  to  marry  human  beings,  though,  to  be  sure,  only 
when  the  latter  have  mortified  themselves  for  months  previ- 
ously with  unsalted  bread  and  water,  so  as  to  give  to  their 
flesh  and  blood  a  half-ethereal  character. 

The  naturalist,  however,  cannot  allow  himself  to  be  allured 
by  dreams  and  phantasies;  he  insists  upon  seizing  and  taking 
to  pieces  those  forms  to  which  the  water  lends  such  an  indis- 
tinct and  magical  effect.  He  wishes  he  had  a  diving  bell  and  a 
diving  helmet  in  order  that  he  might  get  down  to  tl^e  bottom 
at  once,  and  he  would  fain  catch  the  flshes  with  a  net.  But 
the  former  appliances  are  unknown  here,  and  the  water  is 
too  clear  and  the  bottom  too  uneven  and  treacherous.  The 
gallant  divers,  however,  that  sit  in  the  boat  are  able  to  fulfil 
every  desire,  quickly  bringing  up  the  corals  to  which  they 
are  directed  by  a  stick  or  by  description,  and  by  means  of 
baited  hooks  catching  one  after  another  the  finny  denizens  of 
the  deep.  They  use  hooks  of  various  sizes,  and  different 
kinds  of  bait,  such  as  small  fishes,  or  morsels  of  fisli,  worms, 
serpent-stars,  pieces  of  crabs  or  other  shell-fish,  and  algse, 
according  to  the  size  and  likings  of  the  fish.  It  requires  a 
practised  eye  to  distinguish  the  corals  on  the  spot  where  they 
grow ;  it  is  indeed  difficult,  and  often  scarcely  possible,  with 
the  microscope  to  make  out  the  species  at  home  and  by  the 
study  table.  If  the  divers  are  left  to  their  own  choice,  they 
will  be  sure  to  bring  a  limited  number  of  species,  but  of  these 
as  great  a  number  of  examples  as  possible.  The  same  species 
often  exhibits  very  different  external  forms  and  colours,  and 

24 


870  UPPER  EGYPT. 

vice  versa,  different  species  often  exhibit  the  same  general 
forms  and  colours.  In  catching  fish  much  depends  upon  the 
appetites  of  the  fish,  but  the  fisherman  knows  the  tastes  of 
the  several  fishes,  and  can  pretty  accurately  determine  before- 
hand what  fish  will  take  such  and  such  a  bait. 

THE  CORALS. 

In  multiplicity  of  species  and  forms,  and  in  the  number  of 
its  individual  colonies,  the  great  genus  of  crown-corals  (Ma- 
drepora)  characterizes  before  all  others  the  outer  slope  of  the 
coral  reef.  The  colour  of  the  animals  and  their  dwellings 
varies  generally  from  dark  brown  to  yellowish  and  greenish, 
the  points  of  the  branches  being  usually  conspicuous  from 
their  lighter  shade,  which  sometimes  passes  into  bluish  and 
rose-red.  The  coral  structures  or  colonies  assume  sometimes 
the  appearance  of  a  sward  of  grass,  stems  comparatively  low, 
and  with  few  branches  rising  in  tufts  above  the  general  flat 
surface;  sometimes  they  resemble  a  net- work  of  leaves  and 
grass  with  a  rounded  or  gyrate  periphery,  the  branches  and 
twigs  uniting  to  form  a  much  broken  surface;  or,  lastly,  they 
grow  to  a  considerable  height,  with  a  bushy  or  tree-like  form. 
Of  these  three  typical  forms,  the  first  is  found  especially 
on  the  higher  part  of  the  reef,  the  species  of  the  second 
often  cover  large  areas  on  the  slope  and  form  tabular  pro- 
minences and  terraces,  the  third  form  belongs  mainly  to  the 
deep  water.  Many  such  madrepore  trees  reach  a  height  of 
three  or  four  feet,  some  form  bushes,  which,  growing  in  great 
numbers  beside  each  other  on  the  bottom  in  front  of  the  slope, 
appear  like  extensive  woods  or  steppes.  The  thistle-like 
bushes  of  the  Seriatopora,  with  its  delicate  and  much  inter- 
woven stems,  have  a  habit  similar  to  the  latter. 

But  these  loose  and  brittle  corals,  in  regard  to  which  we 
cannot  but  wonder  how  they  withstand  the  force  of  the 
breakers,  are  not  proper  rock-building  corals.  The  blocks  of 
which  the  reef  is  built  are  produced  by  the  massive  forms, 
and  in  particular  by  the  mesh-corals  (Porites),  which  are 
consolidated    together   into   huge  bluish,   brown,  or   black 


THE   CORALS.  371 

spheres,  bosses,  and  columns,  and  to  the  meandrine  or  brain 
corals  [Leptoria,  Coeloria),  which  have  polyps  with  shim- 
mering green  flesh,  and  which  fringe  the  prominences  of  the 
reef  in  rounded  wavy  masses.  Rocks  are  formed  also  by  the 
great  family  of  the  star-corals  (Astrcea),  which  form  convex 
expansions,  and  also  balls  and  bosses.  The  stars  or  openings 
of  the  individual  animals  have  a  certain  size  according  to  the 
species,  from  the  large  Acanthastrsea  and  Prionastrsea  to  the 
elegant  Goniastrgea  and  peculiar  Astrgea.  The  flat  crusts  of 
the  flat  Montipora  shimmer  in  light,  yellow  and  violet  colours. 
The  urchin-coral  {Echinopora)  spreads  itself  out  as  a  half  free 
crust,  or  as  an  undulating  brown  or  yellow  table,  with  a  very 
rough  surface,  the  substance  rising  here  and  there  into  knobs 
and  pillars.  The  solid  Hydnophora  grows  similarly  and  ex- 
hibits a  bench-like  appearance.  The  millepore  corals  {Mille- 
pora),  called  by  the  natives  ''fire- corals''  from  the  sharp 
stinging  nettle-like  pain  they  cause,  and  classed  by  some 
among  the  Medusae,  sometimes  rise  in  the  form  of  upright, 
thick,  abruptly  terminating  tables  and  walls,  or  they  form 
variously-shaped  crusts  on  worm-tubes,  shells,  &c.,  or  lying 
free  they  form  themselves  into  knotty  protuberances.  Some, 
lastly,  rise  in  the  form  of  thin  net-like  plates,  which  readily  fly . 
in  pieces  and  terminate  above  in  3^et  more  fragile  twigs.  One 
of  the  most  beautiful  corals,  and  one  that  at  once  attracts 
notice  on  account  of  its  cherry-red  colour,  is  the  cup-star 
coral  (Pocillojpora),  which  grows  mainly  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  slope,  and  generally  in  tufts,  though  also  forming  beds. 
The  colour  belongs  to  the  stony  structure,  though  only  to  its 
extremities,  like  the  blue  colour  of  the  madrepores;  the  lower 
portion  and  the  polyps  themselves  are  brown.  The  Stylo- 
phora  still  continues  to  be  well  represented  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  slope  alongside  of  the  Pocillopora,  and,  like  it,  varies 
from  a  brownish  to  a  rose-red  colour.  Besides  those  men- 
tioned there  are  many  other  corals,  which,  from  their  small- 
ness  or  scarcity,  however,  are  of  subordinate  importance  in 
the  formation  of  the  reef;  such  are  the  Coenopsammia,  which 
forms  a  little  tree,  sometimes  of  a  deep  black  at  other  times 
of  a  blackish-green  appearance,  the  mushroom  corals  (Fungia), 


372  UPPER  EGYPT. 

which  are  attached  only  in  earliest  youth,  and  afterwards  lie 
free  on  the  ground,  sometimes  having  a  flat  round  body 
(Fungia  patella),  sometimes  having  a  lengthened  elliptical 
shape  with  a  longitudinal  furrow,  and  then  assuming  the 
deceptive  appearance  of  a  petrified  roll  of  bread  {Fungia 
Fhrenhergi,  Herpetholitha).  The  sight  of  rosy-rayed  and 
pretty  rare  Galasea  always  excites  joy  and  admiration  in  the 
discoverer.  At  a  great  depth  grows  the  well-known  black 
coral  (Antipathes),  a  six-rayed  sclerobasic  coral.  In  the  Red 
Sea  there  are  but  few  representatives  of  the  numerous 
family  of  the  eight-rayed  sclerobasic  corals  so  richly  repre- 
sented elsewhere,  especially  in  American  seas,  and  to  which 
the  well-known  red  coral  belongs.  While  the  reef  is  so 
thickly  overgrown  with  algse  up  to  the  line  where  it  sinks 
into  the  surf  zone,  vegetable  life  appears  to  cease  altogether 
when  we  approach  the  deep  water.  Instead  of  plants  leathery 
corals  or  Alcyonaria  now  flourish  luxuriantly,  and  by  an 
ignorant  observer  would  be  at  once  mistaken  for  them.  The 
polyps  of  these,  however,  generally  project  considerably,  and 
are  easily  noticed;  they  are  distinguished  from  the  animals 
of  most  other  corals  by  possessing  eight  rays  and  as  many 
feathery  tentacles,  while  other  polyps  have  generally  only 
six  rays.  The  colour  of  these  animals  changes  very  remark- 
ably according  as  they  expand  or  contract  themselves,  and 
a  person  might  easily  think  that  a  colony  or  bank  when  dis- 
turbed belonged  to  quite  a  diflferent  species  from  the  same 
when  not  so  disturbed.  From  particles  of  lime  interspersed 
throughout  their  entire  tissue,  some  of  these  "flesh  corals'' 
possess  a  leathery  consistence,  as  is  the  case  with  the  cork- 
corals  (Alcyonium),  while  in  others  the  calcareous  particles 
are  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  stems  remain  almost  soft 
{Xenia,  Sympodium).  The  Ammothsea  is  a  coral  that  has 
a  remarkably  plant-like  aj^pearance,  often  forming  lofty  stalks 
and  bearing  "catkins." 


THE  FISHES.  373 

THE     FISHES. 

The  Red  Sea  is  extraordinarily  rich  in  fishes,  the  number 
of  species  at  present  known  amounting  to  about  520.^  They 
are  most  plentiful  on  the  slope  of  the  coral  reef.  Whether 
there  are  real  coral-eating  fishes  is  still  doubtful ;  the  hard 
substance  of  the  corals  at  least  can  only  be  nibbled  at,  and 
the  soft  animals  withdraw  into  their  cells  on  the  slightest 
disturbance.  Many  fishes  eat  plants,  others  subsist  on  the 
numerous  worms  and  molluscs  that  live  here,  or  on  decaying 
animal  matter;  the  greater  number  are  predaceous,  and  eat 
other  fishes.  The  slope  of  the  reef,  with  its  crevices  and  deep 
pools,  affords  admirable  hiding-places,  and  since  the  locality 
exhibits  a  number  of  bright  colours,  the  fishes  do  so  likewise, 
according  to  a  law  which  generally  prevails  in  nature  (that 
of  mimicry),  although  not  without  many  exceptions. 

In  splendour  of  colour  and  diversity  of  form  the  fishes  of 
the  coral  region  do  not  yield  to  the  most  brilliant  birds.  As 
among  birds  the  parrot  takes  the  first  rank  for  brilliant  plum- 
age, so  among  fishes  the  same  rank  is  taken  by  the  parrot-fish 
(Scarus),  the  jaws  of  which  have  a  remarkable  resemblance 
to  the  beak  of  a  parrot.  It  is  rivalled  by  the  remaining 
members  of  the  great  family  of  the  wrasses  (Labroidei),  espe- 
cially^ by  the  rainbow-fish  (Julis),  as  also  by  the  squami- 
pennes  with  their  disk-like  forms,  their  very  small  mouths, 
and  their  delicate  teeth,  the  most  remarkable  of  these  forms 
being  the  genera  of  the  brittle-teethed  fishes  (Ghcetodon),  the 
opercular-spine  fishes  (Holacanthus),  the  whip-thong  fishes 
(Heniochus);  we  must  also  add  the  sea-surgeon  {Acanthurns), 
the  unicorn  thorn  tail  {Naseus),  with  its  sharp  tail-spine,  the 
trigger-fish  {Batistes),  and  lastly,  the  elegant,  though  gener- 
ally small,  Pomacentridse,  the  humming-birds  among  the 
fishes.  These  fishes  are  for  the  most  part  comparatively  poor 
swimmers,  and  do  not  venture  far  from  the  slope  of  the  reef, 
being  also  met  with  frequently  in  the  deeper  pools  on  its 

^  See  on  this  subject  my  complete  "Synopsis  of  the  Fishes  of  the  Red  Sea"'  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Imperial  lioi/al  Zoological  and  Botanical  Society/  of 
Vienna,  1870-71. 


374  UPPER  EGYPT. 

surface.  Many  fishes  of  the  sea-bream  family  (Sparoids)  also 
love  to  frequent  the  slope,  though  less  exclusively,  and  their 
colours  are  commonly  not  so  brilliant.  The  nearly  allied 
fishes  of  the  genus  Csesio,  which  swim  about  in  shoals  in 
front  of  the  slope,  at  once  attract  the  spectator's  notice  by 
their  beautiful  sky-blue  colour. 

The  predaceous  species  among,  these  coral-fishes  are  the 
perches  {Percidce),  especially  the  saw-perches  (Serranus),  so 
numerous  in  species  and  so  rich  in  colouring,  the  notched- 
perches  {Diaco2:)e),  and  the  thorn-perches  {Myripristis),  that 
generally  lead  a  nocturnal  life,  the  toothed-perches  (Friacan- 
thus),  the  spiny-gilled  perches  (Holocentrum),  and  the  Chilo- 
dipterus.  The  sea-eels  (Murcena)  show  themselves  more  on 
the  reef  itself  and  in  the  pools;  a  gigantic  species,  Murcena 
Javanica,  reaches  a  length  of  6  J  feet  or  more,  and  occurs 
also  on  the  slope. 

Among  the  inhabitants  of  the  reef  surface,  in  the  zone  of 
the  breakers,  are  the  repulsive-looking  mailed-cheeked  fishes 
{Cataphracta),  such  as  the  dragon-head  (Scorpcena),  and  the 
most  hideous  of  all  fishes  the  Synanceia.  They  lie  here 
motionless  and  hidden  between  stones  and  grass,  and  as  they 
can  imitate  the  colour  of  their  abodes  in  the  most  surprising 
manner,  the  invader  of  their  haunts  is  often  not  aware  of 
their  presence  until,  having  set  his  foot  on  them,  they  sud- 
denly start  up  and  inflict  on  him  very  painful  wounds  with 
their  spines.  The  stings  of  the  Synanceia,  at  least,  are  almost 
as  painful  as  those  inflicted  by  the  scorpion.  This  hideous 
creature  has  usually  the  points  of  its  dorsal  spines  concealed 
under  a  thick  skin  like  the  claws  of  a  cat.  It  can  volun- 
tarily withdraw  this  skin,  however,  whereupon,  according  to 
the  fishermen,  a  milky  drop  exudes,  a  kind  of  eating  poison^ 
which  makes  the  wound  so  painful.  One  of  the  finest  sights 
in  this  sea  is  afibrded  by  the  winged-fish  {Pterois),  when  it 
swims  about  in  a  pool  or  creek  with  its  large  brilliant  and 
delicate  fins.  But  care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  it  touch  the 
naked  skin,  as  the  sharp  and  slender  dorsal  spines  form 
weapons  capable  of  inflicting  very  severe  wounds. 

The  balloon-fish  (Tetrodon), -which  generally  occur  in  bays. 


THE   FISHES.  875 

are  also  remarkable  creatures.  When  danger  threatens  they 
quickly  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  doing  which 
they  are  assisted  by  their  large  swimming-bladder,  and 
here  they  gulp  up  air  with  a  certain  noise.  The  air  passes 
through  the  gullet  into  a  sack  (an  extension  of  the  perito- 
neum), which  lies  between  the  peritoneum  and  the  skin,  and 
in  ordinary  circumstances  is  in  a  state  of  collapse;  as  the 
sack  becomes  inflated  the  fish  thereby  gradually  assumes  the 
form  of  a  sphere,  which  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water  like 
an  inflated  bladder.  The  back  being  the  heavier  portion 
turns  undermost  with  the  belly  above  it.  The  surface  of  the 
sphere  is  almost  everywhere  closely  beset  with  prickles, 
which  this  procedure  causes  to  stand  stiff*  and  erect.  In  the 
case  of  the  urchin-fish  (Diodon)  these  prickles  are  very  large 
and  strong.  In  this  state  these  fishes  have  no  active  means 
of  defence;  they  can  no  longer  swim  at  pleasure,  since  their 
fins  have  become  withdrawn,  and  they  are  altogether  at  the 
mercy  of  the  waves.  But  as  the  hedgehog  among  mammalia 
is  safe  against  attacks  when  curled  up  in  a  ball,  so,  too,  these 
piscine  hedgehogs  are  protected  by  their  spiny  armour,  the 
more  so  that  a  bladder  when  swimming  is  by  no  means  easy 
to  lay  hold  of  even  though  unprotected  by  spines.  Accord- 
ing to  the  magnitude  of  the  danger  they  inflate  themselves 
much  or  little,  and  when  they  are  very  greatly  disturbed 
their  bodies  swell  almost  to  bursting.  When  the  danger  is 
over  they  let  out  the  air  gradually  and  with  some  noise,  and 
then  they  resume  the  appearance  of  an  ordinary  fish  and 
swim  away.  All  the  species  are  not  equally  inflatable,  how- 
ever. The  beak  of  these  fishes  bas  some  resemblance  to  that 
of  a  parrot,  but  while  the  bite  of  the  latter  is  comparatively 
harmless,  these  globe-fish  bite  severely  whatever  comes  into 
their  neighbourhood.  Their  heads  are  looked  upon  as  very 
poisonous,  even  for  cats,  while  the  rest  of  their  bodies  are 
much  eaten,  at  least  by  the  ichthyophagous  Bedouins.  Their 
bite  is  not  poisonous,  nor  are  there  any  other  poisonous  fishes 
in  this  sea,  though  several,  when  eaten  at  certain  times,  cause 
pains  and  purging,  as,  for  example,  a  mackerel  {Scomber 
Kanagurta),  which  otherwise  is  not  bad  eating. 


376  UPPER  EGYPT. 

The  trunk-fisbes  or  coffer-fishes  (Ostracion)  have  a  form 
which  apparently  marks  them  off  from  all  other  fishes.  They 
possess  a  hard,  rigid,  and  box-like  coat  of  mail,  composed  of 
separate  polygonal  plates  joined  together,  and  out  of  this 
only  the  fins,  the  mouth,  and  the  tail  project  as  movable 
extremities.  Accordingly  they  swim  very  badly,  and  may 
be  even  taken  with  the  hand.  A  closer  examination  of  their 
structure,  however,  shows  the  greatest  similarity  with  the 
globe-fishes.  The  bases  of  the  spines  of  the  latter  have,  in 
the  case  of  the  coffer-fishes,  become  broadened  out  into  the 
form  of  simple  plates,  and  are  grown  together,  while  the 
spines  have  diminished  in  size  or  disappeared  altogether. 

Other  strange  forms  which  swim  about  in  the  creeks  and 
pools  are  the  tobacco-pipe  fishes  (Fistularia),  the  sea-needles 
(Syngnathus),  and  the  well-known,  though  here  rather  rare, 
sea-horses  (Hippocampus), 

Rays  and  small  sharks  may  sometimes  be  met  with  on  the 
surface  of  the  reef,  though  mainly  as  casual  visitors.  Colossal 
specimens  of  the  former  are  sometimes  thrown  up  dead  on 
the  shore,  of  which  the  genera  Cephaloptera  and  Ceratoptera 
may  be  mentioned.  Such  a  monster  of  the  deep  is  also  the 
so-called  swimming-head  or  sun-fish  (Orthagorisciis),  which 
is  closely  allied  to  the  globe-fish. 

The  sea-grass  meadows  (Gisua  of  the  Arabs),  which  we  have 
already  often  mentioned,  and  which  are  met  with  partly  in 
depressions  in  the  surface  of  the  reef,  partly  on  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  (especially  in  harbours),  afford  concealment  to  a 
special  class  of  fishes,  many  of  which  are  distinguished  by 
possessing  a  green  colour.  To  these  belong  several  sea-needles 
(Gastrotokeus),  the  knife-fishes  (Amphisile),  several  of  the  sea- 
bream  family,  especially  Lethrinus,  the  Percis,  young  broad- 
fish  (Platax),  and  some  of  the  genus  Diagramma. 

On  a  sandy  bottom  in  front  of  and  on  the  reef,  as  well  as 
on  the  bottom  of  the  harbour,  live  the  flat-fishes  (Pleuronec- 
tidce),  or,  as  they  are  here  called,  the  Moses-fishes,  half 
covered  over  and  generally  lying  quietly  in  wait  for  their 
prey;  along  with  these  we  also  find  the  flat-heads  {Platy- 
cephalus),  which  belong  to  the  mailed-cheeks;  and,  lastly, 


THE  FISHES.  377 

rays,  especially  the  Torpedo,  which  gives  slight  electric  shocks. 
These  ground  fishes  have  this  in  common,  that  they  are  flat, 
and  have  the  under  surface,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Pleuro- 
nectidse,  one  of  the  sides,  pale  and  colourless.  It  is  only  the 
Gerresoyena,  which  sometimes,  though  rarely,  makes  a  trench 
in  the  sand  with  one  of  its  sides,  that  has  scales  gleaming  like 
silver  all  over  its  body. 

A  number  of  species  of  fishes  are  always  on  the  move. 
The  shoals  of  these  are  met  with  in  the  harbour  and  on  the 
reef,  but  do  not  go  far  out  into  the  open  sea.  At  high-water 
they  swim  over  the  reef  towards  the  shore,  always  making 
for  the  shallows,  probably  from  fear  of  the  predaceous  fishes, 
and  at  low-water  they  return  to  the  harbour,  if  they  have 
not  allowed  themselves  to  be  imprisoned  in  the  pools  by  the 
receding  tide.  Such  wandering  fishes  are  the  barbels,  the 
mullets,  the  members  of  the  genera  Gerres,  Therapon,  and 
Pristipoma,  and  these  are  accompanied,  especially  at  night, 
by  some  of  the  coral  fishes,  such  as  the  parrot-fish,  and 
several  of  the  genera  Chrysophrys.  They  are  mostly  good 
swimmers. 

The  open  sea  also  is  not  poor  in  fishes,  though  by  no  means 
so  ricli  as  the  reef  region.  They  are  all  excellent  swimmers, 
able  to  make  long  journeys,  and  accordingly  have  generally 
a  wide  geographical  distribution.  Many  of  them  are  not  only 
spread  over  the  whole  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  as  far  as 
Japan  and  Australia — which  is  also  the  case  with  many  of  the 
previously-mentioned  fishes,  even  the  coral  fishes  proper — but 
also  over  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  American  coasts,  and  into 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Some  few  are  even  found  in  the  North  Sea 
and  in  the  Mediterranean.  These  strong-swimmers  are  almost 
all  of  a  monotonous  colour,  which  becomes  paler  on  the  belly; 
and  members  of  the  same  species,  though  inhabiting  regions 
widely  separated,  differ  from  each  other  in  no  respect,  not 
even  by  a  mere  shade,  while  the  reef-fish  proper  generally 
exhibit  race  differences  at  least  in  colouring. 

The  fishes,  and  the  fauna  generally,  of  the  East  Afiican 
coasts  and  islands,  up  to  the  Mozambique,  are  most  closely 
connected  with  those  of  the  Red  Sea,  as  well  in  the  number 


378  UPPER   EGYPT. 

of  species  possessed  in  common  as  in  similarity  of  colouring, 
while  farther  towards  the  East  the  species  and  races  gradually 
become  more  and  more  different.  Of  the  520  species  of  fishes 
found  in  the  Red  Sea  140  are  known  from  this  sea  alone  up 
to  the  present  time;  26  are  common  to  it  with  the  East 
African  sea,  while  the  remainder,  that  is  the  greater  number, 
are  spread  over  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  as  far  as  Japan  and 
Australia.  In  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  also,  live  19  species,  being 
confined  chiefly  to  the  tropical  portion  of  it;  only  7  are  found 
in  the  Mediterranean.  Of  the  latter  one  species  (Caranx 
trachuTUs)  is  a  citizen  of  the  world,  being  found  from  Eng- 
land to  New  Zealand;  the  others  belong  to  the  above-men- 
tioned strong-swimmers  or  fishes  of  the  high  sea,  namely,  the 
well-known  pilot-fish  (Naucrates  ductor),  the  remora  {Eclie- 
neis  naucrates),  the  coryphene  or  dolphin  (Coryphcena  hip- 
puTus),  the  hammer-headed  shark  (^Zygoma  malleus),  the 
long-nosed  shark  (Lamna  Spallanzani),  and  the  smooth 
hound  (Mustelus). 

The  fishes  of  the  open  sea  belong  chiefly  to  the  families  of 
.the  mackerels  and  tunnies  (Scomheridce),  the  mackerel-pikes 
( Scomber esocidce),  the  arrow-pikes  ( Sphyrcenidce),  the 
sharks,  and  the  herrings  {Clup)eidce).  Among  the  first  may 
be  mentioned  the  scad  {Garanx),  remarkable  for  the  number 
of  species  it  presents;  these  are  predatory  fishes,  and  prey 
especially  on  herrings  and  allied  fishes,  the  periodical  shoals 
of  which  they  follow,  like  them  appearing  periodically.  The 
tunny-fishes  proper  do  not  make  their  appearance  here  in 
shoals  of  any  size,  but  the  single  individuals  are  often  of 
large  size.  A  remarkable  fish,  closely  allied  to  the  tunny,  is 
the  large  and  rather  rare  sail-fish  (Histiophorus),  the  sword- 
fish  of  this  sea.  It  has  an  extraordinarily  high  dorsal  fin,  and 
laying  itself  on  its  side,  and  forming  an  arch  about  1 2  feet 
wide,  it  is  able  to  make  several  leaps  to  the  height  of  3  or  4 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Other  leaping-fishes  are 
mackerel -pikes  {Scomheresocidce),  the  half- beaks  (Hemi- 
ramphus),  the  mullets  and  the  herring-like  Chirocentrus, 
while  the  flying-fish  proper  (Exocoetus),  by  means  of  its  large 
and  wing-like  pectoral  fins,  can  support  itself  in  the  air  for 


THE   FISHES.  3 7 9" 

considerable  distances.  The  flying- gurnards  (Dactylopterus) 
have  not  yet  been  observed  in  the  Ked  Sea,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  fish  which  is  here  met  with,  viz.  the  Apistus  Israeli- 
taruTYh,  closely  allied  to  the  scorpion-fish  or  dragon-head 
(Scorpcena),  is  capable  of  flying,  according  to  Ehrenberg's 
observation.  The  sail-fish  or  fan-fish  (Pterois),  formerly 
mentioned,  has  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  so  large  as  to 
resemble  wings,  and  some  persons  have  believed  it  able  ta 
fly,  but  this  is  not  the  case,  as  its  fins  are  too  delicately 
constructed.  It  is  strange  to  see  how  shoals  of  these  leaping 
and  flying  fishes  suddenly  leap  from  the  water  and  take  the 
same  direction,  all  rising  together,  as  if  at  the  word  of  com- 
mand, or  as  if  impelled  by  the  same  external  influence,  the 
same  thought  and  will.  This  community  of  feeling  is,  gener- 
ally speaking,  peculiar  to  fishes  that  move  about  in  shoals. 

The  pilot-fishes  (Naucrates),  as  is  well  known,  swarm 
around  the  sharks,  greedy  as  these  are  for  most  sorts  of 
animal  food,  without  the  latter  doing  them  any  injury,  and 
in  company  with  the  sharks  they  often  follow  ships  for  long 
distances.  By  means  of  the  sucking-disc  which  it  has  on  its 
head  and  shoulders,  and  which  is  nothing  else  than  a  modified 
dorsal  fin,  the  remora  (Echeneis)  attaches  itself  to  the  skin 
of'  a  shark,  and  often  to  the  bottom  of  a  vessel,  and  thus 
travels  over  the  whole  world.  Herrings  and  sardines  appear 
periodically  and  in  great  shoals,  and  are  always  accompanied 
by  a  multitude  of  fishes  of  prey.  They  are  generally  small, 
though  some  allied  forms  (Alhida,  Chanops,  and  Elops)  grow 
to  a  large  size,  and  these  occur  in  both  the  Indies  without  it 
being  possible  to  make  a  specific  distinction  between  them. 
All  the  fishes  mentioned  are  strong-swimmers,  travel  far  out 
into  the  open  sea,  and  are  found  also  in  the  harbours,  but 
only  a  few  of  them  seem  to  care  for  living  on  the  reef  Here 
the  perches  ply  their  predatory  trade. 

Some  fishes  remain  almost  always  close  below  the  surface 
of  the  water,  as  the  sea-pike  or  garfish,  and  the  half-beak 
(Hemiramphus);  others  love  only  shallow  water,  or  keep  at 
a  moderate  depth ;  while  others  again  only  feel  comfortable 
at  a  great  depth,  and  seldom  make  their  appearance  above. 


380  UPPER  EGYPT. 

This  diversity  of  habit  depends  upon  the  species,  and  often 
upon  the  age  of  the  fishes.  Many  species  are  never  met 
with  except  of  a  large  size,  as  is  the  case  with  species  of 
Serranus,  Plectropoma,  Diacope,  Holocentrum,  Sphserodon, 
Pagrus,  Dentex,  Aphareus,  Sphyrgena,  Thynnus,  Caranx; 
such  species  may  pass  their  youth  in  localities  where  they  can- 
not be  caught  by  the  hook,  probably  in  deep  water.  Some 
species  retire  to  greater  depths  as  they  grow  old,  while  the 
younger  ones  are  met  with  nearer  the  surface;  this  is  the  case 
with  several  of  the  genus  Serranus.  The  fishes  that  are 
hooked  at  great  depths  present  this  peculiarity,  that  their 
bodies  are  distended,  and  their  throat  and  sesophagus  forced 
forward  to  their  mouths.  This  is  evidently  a  result  of  the 
diminished  pressure  on  the  gases  of  the  body,  and  analogous 
to  the  swelling  up  of  a  frog  under  the  air-pump.  When  the 
fish  voluntarily  comes  up  it  can  gradually  restore  the  equili- 
brium by  means  of  its  swimming-bladder.  The  lower  animals 
that  live  at  great  depths  have  their  water- vascular  system, 
or  something  corresponding,  as  a  means  of  equalizing  the  pres- 
sure. Many  fishes  that  live  deep  down  "in  the  purple  dark- 
ness" have,  strange  to  say,  a  bright  red  colour,  while  other 
similar  species  and  individuals  that  live  higher  are  darker  and 
grayer,  or  are  brightly  coloured.  Besides  the  locality  they  live 
in  (the  coral  reef  or  the  open  sea),  sex  has  some  influence  on 
their  colours;  this  probably  accounts  for  the  striking  diver- 
sities of  colouring  exhibited  by  some  of  the  parrot-fishes  and 
rainbow-fishes,  which  do  not  have  the  slightest  difference  in 
form;  but  too  few  observations  have  been  made,  and  the  sex 
cannot  be  easily  detected  except  at  spawning  time.  At  this 
time  some  of  them,  as  in  the  genus  Caranx,  show  more 
lively  colours,  afterwards  becoming  lean  and  gray.  On  this 
subject  also  further  observations  are  desirable. 

Many  fishes  sliow  themselves  only  at  night,  and  these  night- 
fishes,  as  well  as  those  living  at  a  great  depth,  have  generally 
large  eyes.  There  are,  to  be  sure,  large-eyed  day-fishes  also. 
The  "eye-fish"  (Priacanthus  hamrur)  has  two  very  large 
eyes,  with  wide  cloudy-looking  pupils  which,  when  it  is  alive, 
shine  in  the  dark  like  the  eyes  of  a  cat.     To  the  luminous 


THE  FISHES.  381 

fishes  belong  the  genera  Scopelus,  Maurolicus,  Astronesthes. 
They  have  peculiar  round  corpuscles  or  glands  in  their  bodies, 
and  these  often  gleam  like  precious  stones,  amethyst,  for 
instance,  and  are  said  to  be  luminous  at  night.  A  consider- 
able number  of  Red  Sea  fishes  produce  sounds,  and  especially 
when  they  are  taken  out  of  the  water. 

But  we  have  already  ventured  with  our  frail  boat  too  far 
in  the  billowy  open  sea  with  its  cruel  sharks  and  saw-fish, 
its  companies  of  sportive  dolphins,  its  sirens,  and  its  gigantic 
turtles;  we  might  come  too  near  a  gigantic  sperm-whale,  and 
accordingly  we  prefer  to  return  to  the  quiet  harbour.  There 
we  may,  perhaps,  have  the  good  luck,  rare  in  this  sea,  to 
catch  some  of  the  Medusse  or  a  chain  of  Salpse,  which  creatures 
sometimes  cover  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  harbour, 
generally  about  once  in  two  years,  and  especially  after  east 
and  south-east  winds.  Or  we  may  catch  some  of  those 
gleaming  sepias  that  swim  with  a  succession  of  jerks.  If  we 
dip  into  the  sea  a  fine-meshed  net,  such  as  is  used  for  catching 
butterflies,  and  drop  what  it  retains  into  a  glass  of  sea- water, 
we  shall  be  sure  to  find  various  minute  creatures,  such  as 
Polycystina,  Infusoria,  and  larval  forms.  If  we  have  a  trawl- 
net  we  may  let  it  down  and  hoist  a  sail,  and  then  we  shall, 
no  doubt,  catch  some  of  the  rare  inhabitants  of  the  bottom 
The  trawl-net  cannot  be  much  employed  here,  however;  it 
soon  becomes  frayed  and  torn  on  the  rocky  bottom  of  the 
harbour,  and  still  more  on  that  of  the  sea  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  coral  reef,  where  also  the  depth  is  generally  too 
great. 

We  finish  our  labours  by  collecting  a  few  gnats  that  were 
dancing  above  the  water,  some  of  the  sea-runners  (Halohates) 
that  run  about  upon  the  surface  of  the  sea,  sand-beetles 
(Cicindelce)  on  the  sandy  shore,  and  tiny  spring- tails  (Podurce) 
under  stones  in  the  water;  these  assure  us  of  the  existence 
here  of  the  insect  world,  so  sparely  represented  in  the  sea, 
where  the  numerous  varieties  of  crustaceans  take  its  place. 
Thus  we  return  to  land  laden  with  the  treasures  of  all  the 
zoological  kingdoms^  from  the  mammals  to  the  Protozoa. 


CHAPTER    VII. 
POPULAR  BELIEFS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS. 

In  the  ancient  wonderland  of  Egypt,  according  to  the 
•almost  unanimous  testimony  of  its  inhabitants,  there  are  still 
at  the  present  day  wonders  upon  wonders;  and  phenomena 
from  the  region  of  the  supersensual,  which  extends  without 
any  obvious  boundary  from  the  dominion  of  faith  to  that  of 
superstition  and  folly,  are  still  of  daily  occurrence.  At  the 
present  day  it  is  generally  considered  superfluous  to  treat 
of  these  matters,  but  whoever  has  had  an  opportunity  of 
mixing  with  the  Moslimin  for  only  a  short  time  will  admit 
how  deeply  penetrated  by  superstition  the  whole  people  are, 
and  how  they  cannot  really  he  understood  unless  by  one 
who  has  a  knowledge,  not  only  of  their  religious  beliefs, 
but  also  of  their  superstitions. 

THE   GINN. 

Like  the  other  countries  of  Islam  (so  the  Koran  teaches) 
Egypt  is  inhabited  by  a  vast  number  of  ginn  or  spirits 
(genii)  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  human  race.  These  ginn 
are  not  spirits  of  the  dead  that  have  to  "walk,"  as  in  other 
regions,  but  a  distinct  kind  of  beings,  a  sort  of  cobolds  or 
elves,  beings  intermediate  between  angels  and  men.  Like 
men  they  are  born,  grow  up,  become  old,  and  die;  they  are 
male  or  female,  black  or  white,  high  and  low,  free  and  slaves, 
Moslimin  and  Christian;  they  have  each  a  personal  name; 
there  are  among  them  kingdoms  and  governments,  with 
rulers  corresponding;  in  short,  they  are  exactly  parallel  to 
mankind,  from  whom  they  are  distinguished  only  by  the 
want  of  flesh  and  blood,  and  by  reaching  a  great  age,  namely, 
300  years  or  more.  To  the  human  race  they  stand  in  the 
closest  relationship.  Every  child  of  man  has  a  companion 
belonging  to  the  realm  of  the  ginn,  who  is  born  at  the  same 


THE  MAN   OF  SCIENCE  AND  THE  MAGICIANS.  383 

hour  with  him,  and  attends  him  as  his  o^uardian  anofel,  but 
more  frequently  makes  him  the  victim  of  malicious  tricks, 
nay,  even  renders  him  sick  and  causes  his  death.  This  com- 
panion, the  karina,  is  female  in  the  case  of  a  male  child  and 
vice  versa;  and  when  the  child  dies  of  spasms  or  the  like 
while  still  receiving  suck  from  its  mother,  it  is  generally  the 
karina  that  kills  it.  Even  in  the  official  registers  of  deaths 
kept  by  the  physicians  the  karina  was  till  lately  a  regular 
variety  of  disease,  exactly  corresponding  to  our  convulsions. 
As  people  grow  up  these  companions  lose  more  and  more 
their  influence  over  them,  and  latterly  they  only  visit  their 
human  mates  now  and  again  when  the  latter  are  asleep. 

Usually  these  beings  are  invisible,  but  they  can  assume 
all  kinds  of  intangible  and  shadowy  forms,  with  the  outlines 
of  persons,  animals,  and  monsters,  and  as  such  they  appear 
to  many  people.  When  a  proper  view  is  obtained  of  them 
they  may  at  once  be  distinguished  by  their  perpendicular 
eye.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  indeed  the 
majority  of  them,  have  experienced  such  encounters,  and  can 
tell  gruesome  stories  about  the  '* afrit"  exactly  similar  to  our 
ghost- stories.  If  any  one  wishes  to  be  sure  of  seeing  these 
beings  he  must  impart  to  his  material  earthly  fleshy  nature 
a  kind  of  half  ethereal  strain  by  preparations  for  months 
beforehand,  by  mortifications,  and  fasts,  and  by  eating  nothing 
but  unsalted  bread  and  water. 


THE  MAN  OF  SCIENCE  AND  THE  MAGICIANS. 

The  "man  of  science"  is  able  to  call  up  these  beings,  to 
drive  them  away,  and  to  make  them  do  his  bidding  by  in- 
voking them  by  name,^  by  reading  certain  chapters  of  the 
Koran  (especially  the  Kurzi)  a  certain  number  of  times — 
perhaps  several  thousand  times — by  writing  down  mysteri- 
ously arranged  letters,  figures,  words,  and  numbers  (taken 
from  the  so-called  Ahged).  This  science,  although  not  recom- 
mended by  the  Prophet,  is  cultivated  throughout  the  whole 

^  These  names  generally  sound  unlike  Arabic,  and  may  afford  the  philologist 
not  uninteresting  hints  regarding  the  origin  of  this  "science." 


884  UPPER  EGYPT. 

of  the  Mohammedan  world  by  a  great  number  of  men,  and 
also  by  women.  The  Moghrebins  or  Moors  and  the  Fellatah 
of  Soudan  are  reputed  the  most  learned  and  skilful  in  it- 
They  draw  their  knowledge  from  tradition  or  from  written 
books,  which  form  a  great  body  of  occult  literature ;  in  scope, 
importance,  and  popular  esteem  only  the  religious  literature 
proper  can  vie  with  it.  By  the  instrumentality  of  the  ginn, 
the  ''servants  of  the  secret,"  or  by  the  knowledge,  however 
gained,  of  one  of  the  ''secret  names  of  God/'  those  acquainted 
with  occult  lore  can  perform  all  sorts  of  miraculous  feats, 
though  it  is  very  remarkable  that  they  are  generally  as  poor 
as  beggars.  Poverty,  however,  we  are  told,  is  in  many  cases 
the  essential  condition  in  a  compact  with  a  genie,  in  others 
celibacy,  or  such  like  self-denial.  With  regard  to  some,  how- 
ever, it  is  maintained  that,  although  genuine  men,  they  are 
formally  married  to  a  ginnee  or  female  ginn,  and  perform 
their  wonders  by  means  of  this  wife,  who  is  invisible  to  other 
people;  they  themselves,  of  course,  do  not  admit  this. 

Men  are  sometimes  met  with  who  spend  a  great  deal  of 
money,  though  nobody  knows  how  they  procure  it.  Such 
persons  are  also  said  to  have  a  compact  with  a  ginnee,  who 
supplies  them  with  money.  A  few  years  ago  a  mysterious 
Mohammedan  gentleman  of  this  kind  travelled  about  in 
Egypt,  calling  himself  the  Seyid  Abd  er- rah  man  el  Adaros 
from  India.  He  sailed  up  the  Nile  with  a  vessel  and  a  large 
retinue,  had  a  medical  attendant  of  his  own,  and  intended 
to  travel  in  the  Soudan.  Travelling  without  a  definite  object 
is  something  extraordinary  among  the  Mohammedans,  and 
accordingly  he  attracted  a  great  deal  of  notice,  especially  as 
he  worked  wonders,  and  was  very  open-handed.  Eye-wit- 
nesses asserted  and  swore  that  he  could  take  pieces  of  money 
from  below  his  carpet  whenever  he  wished,  that  he  could  with 
a  breath  change  silver  coins  into  gold  ones,  salt  into  sugar, 
&c.  This  was  quite  enough,  he  was  denounced  to  the  govern- 
ment as  a  magician,  and  the  authorities  courteously  requested 
him,  instead  of  going  to  the  Soudan,  to  change  his  route  to  the 
nearest  sea-port  (Koseir),  and  there  embark  for  some  other 
country,  supplying  him  at  the  same  time  with  an  escort. 


THE  COMPACT  WITH  IRON  AND  LEAD.        385 

These  people  maintain  that  they  practise  only  the  higher 
and  innocent  kind  of  magic,  and  that  their  ginns  are  good, 
and  not  given  to  commit  evil  deeds,  such  as  robbery  and 
murder,  while  the  "magicians"  are  in  alliance  with  devilish 
beings,  wicked  ginns.  The  good  ginns,  who  are  all  Moslimin, 
serve  Moslimin  only.  Such  Christians  and  Jews  as  practise 
magic  are  able  to  do  so  only  by  the  assistance  of  the  evil  and 
degraded  ginns  or  devils  (sheitan).  These  unbelievers,  on 
the  other  hand,  charge  the  Mohammedans  with  enchantment 
and  exorcise  their  genii  with  psalms.  "Let  a  Christian 
beware  of  calling  up  a  Moslim  ginn,"  is  the  warning  given 
by  an  old  authority,  "the  ginn  will  revenge  himself  for  this 
affront  and  immediately  put  his  summoner  to  death." 

Maskat  is  regarded  as  the  home  and  native  country  of 
magic.  There  at  the  present  day  men  are  still  changed  into 
animals,  especially  donkeys  and  apes,  as  in  the  times  of  the 
Caliphs  and  in  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights. 

THE  MAGIC-BOOKS. 

The  written  books  of  magic  teach  how  a  person  must  pro- 
ceed in  order  to  gain  any  one's  affections,  to  awake  at  will, 
to  unloose  chains,  to  bring  back  a  fugitive,  to  keep  a  wife 
from  faithlessness,  to  meet  with  any  one,  to  keep  birds  away 
from  crops,  to  cause  the  belly  of  a  thief  to  swell  up  ( ! ),  to 
make  a  man  or  an  ox  run  after  him;  but  above  all,  to  discover 
buried  treasures,  to  find  out  a  thief,  to  summon  up  ginns,  or 
to  find  pieces  of  gold  under  one's  pillow.  In  these  books 
there  are  also  a  multitude  of  receipts  against  sickness  in 
general,  and  against  headache,  restlessness,  terror,  wakeful- 
ness, fever,  stoppage  of  milk  both  among  women  and  animals, 
and  scald-head  in  particular,  as  well  as  against  serpents,  scor- 
pions, bugs,  and  other  vermin,  and  for  and  against  pregnancy. 

THE  COMPACT  WITH  IRON  AND  LEAD. 

The  triumph  of  this  science,  however,  is  due  to  the  "com- 
pact with  iron  and  lead,"  and  we  believe  that  we  have  earned 


386  UPPER  EGYPT. 

for  ourselves  the  eternal  gratitude  of  war-tormented  mankind 
in  copying  it  out  of  the  magic-book  and  preserving  it  for  the 
good  of  both  friend  and  foe.  Since  every  one  will  make  haste 
to  wear  this  talisman  on  his  breast,  henceforth  no  sword  will 
cut  or  pierce,  and  no  bullet  penetrate,  and  the  golden  age  has 
arrived.  The  celebrated  Ibrahim  Pasha,  as  any  of  his  sub- 
jects will  testify,  came  out  of  every  battle  uninjured,  and 
reached  an  advanced  age  through  wearing  such  a  talisman, 
and  the  head  of  one  of  the  ringleaders  in  the  massacre  of  the 
Christians  at  Jeddah  could  not  be  struck  off  until  a  talisman 
that  he  had  sewn  under  the  skin  of  his  arm  was  removed. 
The  following  receipts  occur  among  many  others. 

RECEIPT  FOR  SUMMONING  SPIRITS. 

Fast  seven  days,  and  let  body  and  clothes  be  clean.  Read 
first  the  chapter  of  the  Koran  called  "the  angel,"  to  the  word 
Jiazir,  fourteen  times  after  the  night  prayer;  then  pray  with 
four  genuflexions,  uttering  the  fatha  seven  times  at  each 
genuflexion,  and  when  in  the  seventh  night  you  have  read 
that  chapter  fourteen  times,  ask  of  God  what  you  wish  to 
receive.  One  of  the  spirits,  who  are  the  servants  of  this 
chapter,  will  now  appear,  and  will  give  you  information  as 
to  the  treasure,  and  how  you  may  get  possession  of  it. 

"  And  if  you  wish  to  see  still  more  of  the  wonderful  powers 
of  this  chapter,  fast  seven  days  in  a  lonely  place,  and  take 
incense  with  you,  such  as  benzoin,  aloes-wood,  mastic,  and 
odoriferous  wood  from  Soudan,  and  read  the  chapter  1001 
times  in  the  seven  days — a  certain  number  of  readings,  namely, 
for  every  one  of  the  five  daily  prayers.  That  is  the  secret, 
and  you  will  see  indescribable  wonders,  drums  will  be  beaten 
beside  you,  and  flags  hoisted  over  your  head,  and  you  will 
see  spirits  full  of  light  and  of  beautiful  and  benign  aspect. 
Enter  into  friendship  with  some  of  these,  and  they  will  show 
you  treasures  and  reveal  to  you  secret  knowledge,  and  will 
initiate  you  into  the  mysteries  of  religion." 

An  interesting  and  characteristic  remark  was  made  b}^  one 
of  our  acquaintances,  who  asserted  that  he  had  undergone 


THE  MAGIC  MIRROR.  387 

such  a  course  of  self-mortification  and  spirit-seeking;  he  said 
he  really  saw  all  kinds  of  horrible  forms  in  his  magic  circle, 
hut  he  saw  them  also  ivhen  his  eyes  were  shut;  at  last  he  got 
quite  terrified  and  left  the  place. 

A   LOVE-CHARM. 

"  On  a  Wednesday  after  the  vesper  prayer,  and  when  your 
shadow  measures  twenty  paces,  write  the  following  formula 
(chdtim)  with  rose-water  and  sesame  water  on  paper  or  parch- 
ment. Roll  this  up  and  throw  it  on  the  ground.  Then  write 
the  formula  on  the  palm  of  the  left  hand  and  fumigate  with 
mastic,  benzoin,  and  coriander.  Say  over  the  chapters, 
Amran  and  Ichlds,  while  your  hand  is  held  above  the 
smoke,  and  then  pick  up  the  talisman  from  the  ground. 
Touch  your  body  with  it,  and  that  of  the  person  on  whom 
you  have  designs.  Hang  it  to  the  members  of  your  right 
side,  and  you  will  see  something  wonderful;  God's  protection 
is  with  thee.     But  use  the  talisman  only  for  what  is  lawful  I" 

The  formula  consists  of  certain  words  written  so  as  to  form 
a  hollow  square  with  words  also  written  across  the  corners. 
Inclosed  within  the  square  on  each  side  are  the  words  hil 
hdk  ansilnah  u  bit  hdk  nesil,  that  is,  "in  right  (not  unallowed) 
we  have  made  him  (the  spirit)  descend,  and  in  right  he  de- 
scended." The  words  Gabrail,  Mikail,  Israfil,  Israil,  the 
names  of  the  four  archangels,  are  written  so  as  to  form  the 
sides  of  the  square;  across  the  corners  are  Abu  bekr,  Omr, 
Otman,  Ali,  the  four  chief  companions  of  the  Prophet.  Out- 
side the  square  on  each  side  is  Biduh,  the  name  of  a  ginn, 
which  is  very  often  written  on  the  addresses  of  letters,  or  else 
the  corresponding  numbers  of  the  Abged,  2468. 

THE   MAGIC   MIRROR. 

The  magic  mirror  is  much  employed.  A  ''pure"  innocent 
bo}?-  (not  more  than  twelve  years  of  age)  is  directed  to  look 
into  a  cup  filled  with  water  and  inscribed  with  texts,  while 
under  his  cap  is  stuck  a  paper,  also  with  writing  on  it,  so  as 


388  UPPER  EGYPT. 

to  hang  over  bis  forehead;  he  is  also  fumigated  with  incense, 
while  sentences  are  murmured  by  the  conjuror.  After  a  little 
time,  when  the  boy  is  asked  what  he  sees,  he  says  that  he 
sees  persons  moving  in  the  water,  as  if  in  a  mirror.  The 
conjuror  orders  the  boy  to  lay  certain  commands  on  the  spirit, 
as  for  instance  to  set  up  a  tent,  or  to  bring  coffee  and  pipes. 
All  this  is  done  at  once.  The  conjuror  asks  the  inquisitive 
spectators  to  name  any  person  whom  they  wish  to  appear  on 
the  scene,  and  some  name  is  mentioned,  no  matter  whether 
the  person  is  living  or  dead.  The  boy  commands  the  spirit 
to  bring  him.  In  a  few  seconds  he  is  present,  and  the  boy 
proceeds  to  describe  him.  The  description,  however,  accord- 
ing to  our  own  observation,  is  always  quite  wide  of  the  mark. 
The  boy  excuses  himself  by  saying  that  the  person  brought 
before  him  will  not  come  right  into  the  middle,  and  always 
remains  half  in  the  shade;  but  at  other  times  he  sees  the 
persons  really  and  in  motion.  When  a  theft  is  committed 
the  magic  mirror  is  also  sometimes  questioned,  as  we  our- 
selves were  witnesses  on  one  occasion.  (This  is  called  clavh 
el  mandel.)  The  accusations  of  the  boy  fell  upon  a  person 
who  was  afterwards  proved  to  be  quite  innocent,  but  whom 
the  boy,  as  it  appeared,  designedly  charged  with  the  crime 
out  of  malevolence.  For  this  reason  such  experiments,  for- 
merly much  in  vogue,  were  strictly  prohibited  by  the  govern- 
ment, though  they  are  still  practised. 

OTHER  MAGICAL  RITES. 

Another  magical  rite  is  that  of  the  revolving  pitcher.  Into 
a  pitcher  filled  with  water  are  murmured  certain  magic  for- 
mulae. Two  persons,  sitting  opposite  each  other,  hold  the 
pitcher  lightly  with  the  fingers  and  the  thumb,  and  after 
some  time  it  begins  to  turn  either  towards  the  right  or 
towards  the  left,  giving  an  affirmative  answer  in  the  former, 
a  negative  in  the  latter  case.  This  reminds  us  of  table-turn- 
ing, and  also  of  the  key  which  turns  when  held  by  two  people, 
who  have  a  very  slight  grasp  of  it,  or  when  it  is  hung  between 
two  books,  &c.     The  latter  experiment  succeeds  as  well  when 


FEAR   OF   SPIRITS.  389 

performed  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  merry  song  as  to  that 
of  a  pious  psalm. 

A  proceeding  similar  to  that  of  table-turning  is  often  prac- 
tised by  the  Egyptians.  Those  engaged  in  it  squat  round  a 
man  who  stretches  himself  out  on  the  ground  as  if  dead;  they 
join  hands,  and  each  two  sitting  opposite  each  other  lay  the 
hands  or  the  points  of  the  fingers  under  the  man.  Every  one 
then  whispers  to  his  neighbour  er  rdgel  ^nidt,  that  is,  "the 
man  is  dead."  After  a  little  time  it  is  said  that  though  the 
parties  have  only  their  fingers  placed  beneath  the  man  they 
can  raise  him  from  the  ground.  It  is  said  that  other  heavy 
weights  may  be  easily  lifted  in  this  way  also — an  application 
of  force  which,  in  spite  of  faith,  has  not  yet  been  adopted  in 
practical  life. 

From  this  species  of  magic  we  must  distinguish  the  natural 
magic  (zini),  which  acts  by  natural  means  and  sleight  of 
hand,  but  differs  from  the  ordinary  art  of  the  juggler.  A 
master  of  this  art,  we  are  told,  was  able  so  to  deceive  the 
senses  of  his  audience  that  he  appeared  to  go  in  at  a  camel's 
mouth  and  come  out  at  its  other  end.  Another,  however,  is 
said  to  have  played  a  trick  upon  him,  and  made  use  of  means 
to  counteract  the  delusion,  so  that  the  spectators  saw  him 
really  passing  along  by  the  side  of  the  camel. 

FEAR  OF  SPIRITS. 

Yery  few  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  display  much 
eagerness  to  come  to  close  quarters  with  the  spirits,  but  all 
firmly  believe  in  them.  Nobody  ventures,  therefore,  to  live 
in  a  house  alone,  to  go  out  alone  late  at  night,  or  to  remain 
alone  in  a  room  at  night;  and  when  the  husband  wishes  to 
go  out  in  the  evening  to  visit  his  friends,  the  wife  takes 
refuge  with  her  neighbours  or  relatives  if  she  has  no  children 
or  servants.  It  is  only  the  night-watchmen,  sextons,  and 
soldiers  whom  familiarity  relieves  from  the  fear  of  the 
spirits,  though  certainly  not  from  belief  in  them.  On  Friday, 
the  Mohammedan  Sabbath,  the  spirits  are  particularly  fond 
of  stationing  themselves  on  the  thresholds  of  doors  and  gates, 


390  UPPER  EGYPT. 

and  nobody  will  then  venture  to  remain  at  such  spots.  It  is 
not  considered  as  permissible  to  sweep  out  a  house  at  night, 
since  a  ginn  might  be  struck  and  injured,  and  so  induced  to 
revenge  himself.  For  similar  reasons  people  do  not  care  to 
have  anything  to  do  with  cats,  as  these  may  be  ginns  in  dis- 
guise. A  Moslim  is  never  heard  whistling  a  tune  or  any- 
thing else,  especially  at  night,  since  the  spirits  are  attracted 
by  whistling.  The  respect  with  which  the  people  regard  the 
ginns  is  evidenced  by  the  exclamation,  in  universal  use,  "with 
permission,  ye  blessed  ones,"  when  a  person  enters  any  room 
or  pours  out  water.  The  intention  is  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  ginns,  and  warn  them  to  get  out  of  the  way,  so  that 
nothing  may  happen  to  them. 

TALISMANS. 

For  the  most  part,  however,  people  try  to  protect  them- 
selves against  these  beings,  as  causing  sickness;  and  popular 
medicine  is  based  almost  entirely  upon  this  view.  Whoever 
feels  himself  unwell  gets  a  schoolmaster,  a  scribe,  or  any  other 
person  who  has  a  ''blessed  hand"  to  read  a  chapter  or  some 
verses  from  the  Koran  over  him,  and  the  seat  of  the  disease 
in  particular;  or  he  gets  such  a  verse  written  down  on  a  piece 
of  paper,  and,  tying  it  up  in  a  little  leather  bag,  perhaps  sew- 
ing it  in,  attaches  it  to  his  person.  He  may  also  get  a  text 
written  w^ith  ink  in  a  plate  or  other  dish,  when,  having 
washed  off  the  writing  with  water,  he  drinks  up  the  nauseous 
inky  mixture,  and  sometimes  recovers.  If  this  religious  cure 
proves  of  no  avail  he  has  recourse  to  magic.  There  is  scarcely 
a  town,  scarcely  even  a  small  village,  in  which  there  is  not  one 
"doctor"  at  least  who  professes  this  art,  and  who,  for  a  trifle, 
will  write  out  a  valuable  talisman  for  the  invalid,  after  having 
first  determined  whether  the  sickness  proceeds  from  spirits, 
from  the  evil  eye,  from  God,  or  from  some  material  cause. 
Most  people  do  not  allow  matters  to  go  so  far,  but  wear 
themselves,  and  make  their  children  wear  from  the  first  day 
of  their  existence,  one  or  more  amulets  against  all  evil  influ- 
ences in  general. 


THE  ENVIOUS   EYE.  391 


THE    ENVIOUS    EYE. 


In  working  mischief  the  evil  eye  competes  closely  with 
the  ginns.  Many  men  go  about  who  are  by  no  means  sor- 
cerers, and  who  have  eyes  like  other  people,  but  ''empty, 
hollow."  They  cannot  bear  to  see  anything  fine  in  the 
hands  of  another,  and  their  envy  falls  with  a  blighting  effect 
upon  any  creature  they  admire,  which  suddenly  or  gradually 
becomes  ill,  or  meets  with  some  accident,  and  often  dies. 
This  power  of  throwing  an  evil  glance  upon  anything  is  by 
no  means  always  voluntary,  for  even  a  father  may  cause  the 
death  of  his  own  child  by  looking  upon  it  with  admiration! 
It  would  be  impossible  to  quote  all  the  proofs  that  the  people 
bring  forward  in  favour  of  this  theory.  If  a  she-goat  retains 
its  milk  somebody  will  at  once  remember  that  an  old  woman 
(in  other  countries  called  a  witch,  a  conception  which  is  almost 
entirely  unknown  among  Mohammedans)  went  out  of  the 
house  a  little  ago;  if  an  object  that  has  not  been  put  in  a 
secure  position  falls  down,  the  accident  is  caused  by  the  eye 
of  some  person  who  covets  it.  The  envious  person  can  cause 
the  dates  to  fall  from  his  neighbour's  trees,  or  even  bring 
down  the  birds  in  the  air.  A  great  number  of  the  customs 
of  the  people  are  directed  against  this  secret  danger.  The 
dirty  state  in  which  children  are  kept,  the  usages  of  hospi- 
talit37-  to  some  extent,  such  as  the  urgent  invitation  to  a 
person  present  to  partake  of  a  repast  served  up,  the  practice 
of  carefully  concealing  provisions  while  they  are  being  carried 
home,  the  readiness  with  which  an  object  is  handed  to  the 
person  that  admires  it,  are  based  on  this  view;  even  the 
seclusion  in  which  women  are  kept  is  the  result,  not  merely 
of  Mohammed's  commands  or  of  idle  jealousy,  but  arises  from 
the  fear  lest  the  evil  eye  may  injure  the  beloved  beings. 
Texts  from  the  Koran  and  talismans  are  employed  with 
success  against  the  effects  of  the  ''ej^e,"  also  both  before  and 
after  its  influence  falls.  "When  a  person  wishes  to  express 
admiration  without  causing  injury  the  words  of  praise  are 
concluded  with  the  name  of  God — ma  sha  Allah. 


392  UPPER  EGYPT. 

THE  PEOPLE  OF  BLESSING.      THE   SAINTS. 

In  opposition  to  these  envious  people,  to  these  goblins  and 
devilish  magicians,  there  are  fortunately  men  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  they  spread  around  them  good  luck  and  blessing ; 
they  are  known  as  the  ahl  el  baraka  (people  of  blessing). 
These  consist  of  the  sheikhs  or  saints,  especially  silly,  childish, 
crazy  people,  as  well  as  ascetics  and  hermits.  Most  of  them 
have  no  occupation,  but  live  on  alms,  which  they  do  not 
require  to  ask,  since  every  one  considers  it  to  his  interest 
and  advantage  to  bestow  something  upon  them  and  receive 
a  blessing  in  return.  Others  support  themselves  by  some 
occupation,  and  do  not  appear  different  from  other  people, 
but  they  belong  to  a  family  of  blessing.  Respect  is  paid  to 
them  as  to  a  sherif  or  a  man  of  position,  and  they  are  saluted 
with  a  kiss  on  the  head  and  hand.  These  saints  are  usually 
harmless  creatures  who  do  no  harm  to  anybody,  and  whom 
no  one  thinks  of  injuring.  They  presume  upon  this,  and  do 
many  things  that  an  ordinary  man  would  not  venture  to  do. 
Sometimes  they  offend  against  police  regulations,  but  they 
are  allowed  to  do  as  they  please,  their  displeasure  being 
dreaded  as  much  as  their  blessing  is  sought  for.  The  people 
believe  in  their  power  of  working  miracles.  Such  a  saint, 
we  are  told,  was  caught  breaking  into  a  shop  and  was  appre- 
hended by  the  police  and  placed  in  confinement.  Next 
morning,  as  a  punishment  for  this  forcible  detention,  every 
one  of  the  officials  awoke  with  an  eruption  over  his  whole 
body.  Another  saint  set  fire  to  the  shop  of  a  merchant.  All 
the  goods  were  burned,  but  the  blessing  of  the  wrong-doer 
enabled  him  in  a  few  months  to  acquire  three  or  four  times 
as  much  as  he  had  lost.  An  extraordinary  personage  of  this 
kind,  an  old  man,  the  celebrated  Sheikh  Selim,  sits  quite 
naked,  year  after  year,  at  a  certain  spot  on  the  bank  of  the 
Nile  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  lives  on  the  voluntary  tribute  of 
the  passing  mariners  If  they  give  him  nothing  his  curse 
arrests  their  vessel  on  its  course,  even  though  it  be  a  steamer, 
and  farther  progress  is  impossible  till  the  saint's  tribute  is 
paid.     Another  possesses  the  gift  of  omniscience,  and  will 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   BLESSING.      THE   SAINTS.  393 

answer  a  stranger  accurately  as  to  tlie  latter's  previous  life, 
his  name,  and  his  family,  though  be  never  saw  him  before. 
Still  greater  is  their  miraculous  power  after  death.  The  body 
of  such  saints,  when  on  its  way  to  its  last  resting-place,  has 
such  a  mysterious  power  on  those  that  carry  the  bier  that 
they  can  do  nothing  of  themselves,  but  are  compelled  to 
follow  a  certain  route,  and  bur}^  the  saint  in  whatever  spot 
he  may  choose.  An  old  negro  slave  in  Koseir,  well  known 
for  his  long,  harmless,  pious  life,  having  died  towards  even- 
ing, would  not,  on  any  account,  have  himself  buried  the  same 
evening,  and  the  bearers,  in  spite  of  all  their  shouting  of 
la  Hall  ill  A  llah,  could  not  bring  the  corpse  to  the  graveyard. 
It  remained,  therefore,  all  night  in  the  house  (though  the 
people  do  not  like  to  keep  a  corpse  a  night),  watched  by  a 
multitude  of  people  praying.  Next  morning  also  it  could 
not  be  buried  for  a  long  time ;  the  blessed  dead  compelled 
the  bearers  to  2:0  throuorh  all  the  streets  of  the  town,  till  at 
last,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  more  enlightened  gover- 
nor, the  higher  officials  carried  the  bier  to  the  grave;  even 
the  Turkish  soldiers  could  not  accomplish  it.  The  whole 
town  was  in  uproar.  The  Mohammedans  say  the  angels 
exercise  this  coercive  power,  the  Christians  believe  it  is  the 
devil.  Deceit  or  practical  joking  is  not  always  to  be  surmised 
in  such  cases;  on  the  occasion  just  mentioned  almost  the 
whole  male  population  tried  what  they  could  do,  and  among 
them  many  staid  and  serious  men.  It  is  the  firm  belief  of 
these  people  that  the  deceased  saint  or  the  angels  cause  the 
pressure,  and  then  they  feel  it  too.  Even  in  Cairo  such 
occurrences  are  common  as  well  as  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
country.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  also  the  processions 
of  the  images  of  their  deities  did  not  direct  themselves  at 
pleasure,  but  by  divine  inspiration. 

After  burial  the  saint  appears  in  a  dream  to  some  well-to-do 
persons  and  commands  them  to  build  a  tomb  for  him,  where- 
upon he  gives  them  an  effectual  means  for  the  cure  of  their 
diseases.  When  he  obtains  a  temple  wonder  follows  upon 
wonder.  People  stream  to  the  spot  to  perform  their  vows, 
their  wishes  are  granted,  and  offerings  are  brought,  of  which 


394  UPPER   EGYPT. 

the  worthy  sacrificial  priest  or  saint's  attendant  (neJdh) 
claims  a  half  or  a  quarter,  the  rest  being  distributed  among 
the  poor.  From  gifts  made  to  it  the  tomb  gradually  acquires 
costly  ornaments,  and  a  great  j  ubilee  is  celebrated  every  year. 
In  short,  the  worship  of  saints  has  gradually  risen  into  im- 
portance, and  now  is  not  behind  what  is  practised  in  tlie 
Christian-Catholic  Church.  It  is  unknown  to  the  Koran, 
and  therefore  the  Mohammedan  Puritans,  the  Wehabites  of 
Arabia,  would  have  it  expunged  from  the  pure  religion  of 
Mohammed  along  with  much  else.  It  is  very  gratifying  to 
some  to  stand  in  the  odour  of  sanctity,  to  be  honoured  and 
feasted  by  everybody.  Such  prophets  move  from  place  to 
place,  getting  their  former  wondrous  works  proclaimed 
abroad,  and  playing  the  quack  and  mountebank.  One  of 
these  men,  whose  father  is  said  to  have  been  able  to  satisfy 
a  whole  assembly  with  a  meal  that  had  been  served  up  for 
himself  alone,  had  the  impudence  to  swindle  some  £7,  10^-. 
out  of  a  man  who  wished  to  have  children,  under  the  pretext 
that  this  preliminary  outlay  was  necessary  to  procure  drugs, 
whereupon  the  favoured  of  God  set  sail  with  the  next  ship 
and  was  never  seen  again. 

STATES  OF   ECSTASY. 

Among  the  Mohammedans,  and  perhaps  throughout  the 
East,  it  has  always  been  an  everyday  occurrence  for  people 
to  fall  into  a  state  of  ecstasy.  Such  states  are  also  ascribed 
to  the  ginns,  who  take  possession  of  a  person,  transform  his 
appearance  or  "ride"  him,  and  speak  and  act  through  him. 
In  the  nature  of  all  peoples  lies  an  irresistible  tendency 
towards  intoxication,  and  if  wine  or  spirits  are  strictly  for- 
bidden, as  among  the  Mohammedans,  they  induce  this  state 
by  means  of  opium  and  hashish,  or  if  their  religious  scruples 
cause  them  to  reject  these  also,  they  intoxicate  themselves 
with  religion  itself  The  religious  dances  or  zihrs,  of  which 
we  have  repeatedly  spoken,  seem  to  have  been  invented  for 
this  purpose.  After  these  exercises,  which  are  accompanied 
by  much  flinging  about  of  the  head  and  body,  and  by  in- 


THE  SAR.  395 

numerable  repetitions  of  the  name  of  Allah,  it  is  a  common 
occurrence  for  one  or  two  to  fall  into  an  ecstasy.  As  in  the 
case  of  alcoholic  intoxication  one  will  be  in  high  good  humour, 
another  dull  and  silent,  a  third  quite  frantic.  Those  pos- 
sessed in  this  way  foam  at  the  mouth,  while  laboriously  per- 
sisting in  trying  to  stammer  out  the  name  of  Allah ;  at  last 
they  fall  to  the  ground  in  a  swoon,  or  remain  standing  as 
stiff  and  rigid  as  a  pillar,  or  they  rush  frantically  about  and 
strike  at  whatever  comes  in  their  way.  Certain  dervishes 
are  said  on  such  occasions  even  to  eat  fire,  glass,  and  serpents. 
The  Soudanese  are  the  most  addicted  to  these  strange  per- 
formances; in  their  leisure  hours  they  know  of  no  better 
amusement  than  putting  themselves  into  a  state  of  ecstasy 
by  songs  and  dances  which  have  always  a  religious  basis. 
They  set  some  store  by  the  reputation  of  quickly  working 
themselves  into  this  condition.  Though  here  and  there  one 
or  two  may  succeed  in  becoming  really  possessed,  others 
merely  pretend  to  be  so,  and  accordingly  it  happens,  that 
when  the  police  appear  upon  the  scene,  the  whole  of  those 
who  immediately  before  were  lying  rigid  and  in  ecstasy  at 
once  start  up  and  take  to  their  heels. 

This  ecstatic  intoxication  has  no  ulterior  consequences. 
Those  possessed  awake  either  of  themselves  or  are  roused  by 
the  call  la  ilah  ill  Allah  Mohammed  rasul  Allah,  and  they 
then  appear  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  Many  of  the  saints 
that  are  seen  wandering  about  may  have  contracted  their 
imbecility  through  their  repeated  ecstasies,  and  people  of  this 
sort  are  more  disposed  than  others  to  fall  down  during  these 
pious  exercises. 

THE  SAR. 

Amonoj  the  women  zikrs  are  not  indulp^ed  in,  but  the  ten- 
dency  to  ecstasies  is  even  much  greater  among  the  more 
nervous  sex,  and  to  gratify  this  inclination  they  have  adopted  a 
practice  which  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Abyssinian 
female  slaves,  and  which  gradually  spread  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  government  felt  itself  called  upon  to  forbid  it 
Nevertheless,  it  is  still  common  among  high  and  low,  espe- 


396  UPPER  p:gypt. 

cially  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  sch\  a  certain  ginn,  is  the  power- 
ful genie  of  sickness,  who  throws  himself  upon  the  women 
by  preference.  Whenever  a  woman  is  affected  by  any  illness, 
the  causes  of  which  are  not  as  clear  as  day,  the  sar  is  blamed 
— *aleha  es-sdr.  It  is  immediately  made  known  that  the  sar 
is  at  so-and-so's  house  to-day,  but  the  day  must  be  a  Satur- 
day, or  a  Tuesday,  or  a  Thursday.  A  multitude  of  women 
and  girls  stream  to  the  house  of  the  sick  person,  and  are 
treated  to  buza,  the  half- fermented  Arab  beer,  the  favourite 
drink  of  the  Abyssinians,  and  to  tripe.  Songs  are  now  sung, 
and  drums  beaten,  and  the  sar-dance  is  danced — the  women 
placing  themselves  in  a  squatting  posture,  or  with  their  limbs 
bent  under  them,  and  rocking  the  upper  parts  of  their  bodies 
and  their  heads  this  way  and  that,  as  is  done  in  the  zikrs.  Some 
of  them  are  soon  seized  with  the  frenzy,  and  leap  frantically 
about.  All  the  proceedings  are  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  shecha  of  the  sar,  who  is  a  person  well  known  for  her 
tendency  towards  ecstatic  states,  and  generally  a  slave,  and 
who  earns  a  good  deal  of  money  in  this  way.  When  she,  as 
well  as  others,  is  in  a  state  of  ecstasy  she  is  asked  as  to  the 
means  to  be  employed  to  remove  the  disease.  The  cure 
always  consists  in  a  simple  thick  silver  finger-ring  without 
a  stone,  sometimes  also  bracelets  and  anklets,  and  as  soon  as 
the  greedy  sar  is  satisfied  with  this  the  sickness  is  said  to 
cease.  So  great  is  the  faith  in  this  remedy  that  many  spend 
their  last  penny  to  procure  these  silver  ornaments,  and  in 
entertaining  their  numerous  female  visitors. 

Like  the  tarantella  dance  of  the  middle  ages,  the  s^r  is 
contagious.  One  woman  after  another  in  the  company  rises 
up  and  seems  to  begin  dancing  involuntarily,  and  boys  and 
even  men,  who  are  sometimes  admitted  to  these  orgies,  are 
aff*ected  in  the  same  way.  The  features  of  some  become 
altered,  they  slap  their  own  faces,  knock  their  heads  against 
the  wall,  weep,  howl,  and  try  to  strangle  themselves,  being 
difficult  to  restrain;  they  also  give  themselves  out  for  other 
persons,  for  saints,  and  especially  for  the  sar  himself.  They 
may  be  asked  what  it  is  they  wish,  and  may  be  shown  a 
silver  ring,  some  henna  paste,  or  buza.     They  fix  a  furious 


POPULAR  MEDICINE.  397 

glance  "upon  them,  seize  them  suddenly  with  wild  haste,  put 
on  the  ring,  clutch  the  henna-paste  in  their  hand,  or  drink 
buza.  With  this  as  a  rule  the  sar  is  satisfied  and  appeased, 
the  party  possessed  wipes  off  the  perspiration,  and  now 
speaks  quietly  and  reasonably  as  before.  On  a  day  appointed 
for  the  sar  the  attack  is  often  repeated,  ending  as  at  first 
when  the  person's  wish  is  gratified,  and  that  is  often  strange 
enough. 

These  states  are  not  pretended,  that  is  clear — why  indeed 
should  the  parties  beat  and  often  seriously  injure  themselves? 
They  are  cases  of  acute  delirium,  of  ecstasy.  The  spiritualist 
will  call  these  persons  mediums,  the  believer  in  animal  mag- 
netism will  say  they  are  "magnetized."  We  remember  read- 
ing in  the  report  of  a  doctor  attached  to  the  English  Abys- 
sinian expedition  that  a  girl  suddenly  conceived  the  idea  that 
she  was  a  wolf  and  ran  off  at  such  a  rate  that  no  one  could 
catch  her  till  at  last  she  found  a  bone.  This  she  devoured 
with  the  eagerness  of  a  hungry  wolf,  whereupon  she  instantly 
returned  to  her  senses.  This  case  is  quite  similar  to  that  of 
our  sar- possessed  women,  and  Abyssinia  is  the  native  country 
of  the  sar. 

POPULAR   MEDICINE. 

Since  all  diseases  cannot  be  cured  by  talismans,  reading, 
dancing,  and  vows,  an  extensive  system  of  popular  medicine 
has  developed  itself  side  by  side  with  these,  which  is  based 
upon  more  tangible  remedies.  That  a  number  of  these  are 
effective  enough  is  not  to  be  denied,  and  they  agree  prett}^ 
well  with  those  that  experience  has  taught  physicians.  For 
example,  zinc  or  alum  is  a  chief  ingredient  in  all  eye  powders, 
compounds  of  lead  in  drugs  applied  to  wounds  and  eczema, 
as  well  as  astringent  vegetable  substances,  especially  fenu- 
greek {Trigonella  foenum-grcecum).  Among  those  much 
used  are  *^good  oil,"  that  is,  olive-oil  (used  as  a  lotion  in 
rheumatism  and  skin  diseases),  fennel,  coriander,  caraway 
("corn  of  blessing"),  mallows,  mint,  opium,  saltpetre,  sal- 
ammoniac,  sulphur,  green  and  blue  vitriol,  and  litharge;  as 
purgatives  are  used,  epsom  salts,  senna  leaves,  tamarinds. 


398  UPPER  EGYPT. 

rhubarb,  scammony,  and  gamboge,  the  native  colocynth  being 
less  frequently  employed  and  considered  dangerous.  As 
already  mentioned,  the  Bedouins  fill  the  rind  of  the  last- 
mentioned  in  the  evening  with  milk,  which  they  drink  in 
the  morning.  Bleeding  with  the  lancet  is  common,  as  well 
as  cupping  by  means  of  the  razor  and  the  horn,  setons  made 
of  the  chick-pea,  the  actual  cautery,  to  cure  a  headache  for 
instance  (perhaps  performed  by  a  hot  nail),  boiling  oil  for 
fresh  wounds,  the  seeds  of  the  fenugreek  for  ulcers,  the  warm 
steam-batli  in  rheumatism,  syphilis,  and  skin  diseases;  the 
use  of  the  leech  is  less  common,  and  the  native  leech  {Bdella 
nilotica)  causes  painful  wounds.  "When  there  is  a  pain  on 
the  left  side  blood  must  be  taken  from  the  left  arm.  Veins 
are  also  opened  in  the  hand,  the  foot,  and  even  the  nose. 

The  majority  of  the  medicines,  however,  are  grossly  empiri- 
cal, and  tliey  contain  the  most  absurd  ingredients.  Animal 
matters,  some  of  which  formerly  flourished  also  in  our  materia 
inedica,  are  very  common,  such  as  a  goat's  bile,  dogs'  and 
monkeys'  dung,  black-beetles,  pearls,  the  bones  of  dogs  and 
fishes,  lizards,  mummies,  and  the  opercula  of  univalve  shells, 
and  all  these  either  raw  or  boiled,  baked  or  burned  as 
incense.  Many  vegetable  matters  from  all  countries,  and 
often  with  very  unintelligible  names,  are  also  held  in  high 
repute  for  their  curative  properties.  We  give  a  few  recipes: 
Burned  dogs'  bones,  along  with  copperas  and  ox-gall,  are  good 
for  piles,  if  the  mixture  is  applied  with  a  little  saliva.  Another 
specific  for  the  same  disease  consists  of  black-beetles  baked  in 
oil,  the  hard  covers,  the  head,  and  the  intestines  being  then 
removed,  and  again  softened  in  oil  over  a  gentle  fire.  These 
black-beetles  are  looked  upon  as  a  universal  panacea.  Thus 
the  soft  white  substance  found  in  the  inside  of  these  insects, 
the  flesh  indeed,  is  rubbed  on  the  eyes,  and  puts  away  spots 
on  the  cornea  that  are  not  yet  hardened.  It  is  good  also 
against  night-blindness.  Similarly  prepared  scarabsei  (Ateu- 
chus  sacer)  inserted  in  the  ear  along  with  a  little  cotton,  and 
blown  out  a  day  or  two  after  by  the  pressure  of  the  air  of 
expiration  expelled  with  closed  mouth  and  nose,  are  considered 
an  excellent  remedy  for  difficulty  of  hearing.     The  following 


POPULAR   MEDICINE.  399 

is  a  recipe  to  enable  women  to  become  fat:  Take  some  black- 
beetles,  burn  them  and  grind  them  down,  add  beef  fat,  sesame 
oil  and  rtiufetta,  that  is  a  mixture  of  all  the  various  wares 
sold  by  grocers,  boil  the  whole  together,  and  drink  a  cupful 
of  the  liquor  every  day.  Earwigs  are  driven  away  by 
sprinkling  onion  juice  (a  very  plausible  remedy).  A  good 
preventive  against  abortion  is  for  the  woman  to  carry  at  the 
small  of  her  back  a  small  scorpion  and  a  little  piece  of  amber 
tied  up  together  in  a  little  bag ;  pearls  or  red  coral  may  also 
be  used  instead.  Women  that  do  not  wish  to  become  preg- 
nant must  take  fasting  three  mouthfuls  of  the  powder  of 
burned  porcelain  shells  {Cyprcea).  When  a  hair  of  the  e^^e- 
lids  grows  inwards,  it  is  pulled  out  with  a  pair  of  tweezers, 
and  the  spot  is  rubbed  with  a  fly,  the  head  of  which  has  been 
pulled  off",  or  with  St.  John's-bread  powder  made  into  a  paste 
with  oil.  "No  hairs  will  afterwards  grow  tliere."  Eczema 
of  the  head  or  other  parts  is  put  away  by  aloes  dissolved  in 
vinegar,  and  well  rubbed  in.  Ginger,  preserved  or  unpre- 
served,  is  used  as  an  aphrodisiac,  as  well  as  ambergris  (a  fatty 
waxy-like  substance  found  in  the  intestines  and  bladder  of 
the  sperm  whale,  and  sometimes  floating  on  the  sea)  and 
honey,  or  cinnamon  and  carrot  or  radish  seed  boiled  with 
honey,  also  the  gall  of  a  raven,  and  burned  Tridacna  shells 
with  honey.  To  cure  a  scorpion's  sting  a  piece  of  garlic  is 
rubbed  on  the  place,  or  the  dirt  from  the  ear  of  an  ass; 
another  common  cure  is  to  lay  on  the  wound  a  polished  gem, 
as  jasper,  ruby,  or  turquoise,  or  the  operculum  of  a  Trochus 
shell,  or  some  remarkable  coin,  these  things  being  said  to 
adhere  to  the  spot  which  has  been  stung.  Others  maintain 
that  they  are  caused  to  adhere  by  rubbing  with  an  ass's  hoof 
These  gems  have  a  high  repute  for  their  curative  properties 
generally,  and  are  often  sold  at  high  prices.  The  difierent 
varieties  are  credited  each  with  special  effects,  and  have  as 
many  names;  thus  the  jaspers  with  red  spots,  and  marblings 
that  look  like  spots  and  streaks  of  blood,  stanch  blood.  The 
bezoar-stone  (a  concretion  found  in  the  stomach  of  various 
animals,  ruminants  in  particular)  serves  as  an  antidote  to  all 
poisons,  that  of  serpents  included.     The  bezoar-stones  from 


400  UPPER  EGYPT. 

apes  are  in  most  repute.  A  cup  made  of  rhinoceros  horn  also 
counteracts  the  effects  of  any  poison  that  may  happen  to  be 
drunk. 

THE  ANIMALS   IN   POPULAR   BELIEF. 

The  frequent  employment  of  animal  substances  as  medica- 
ments or  talismans  arises  to  a  great  extent  from  the  belief  in 
a  metamorphosis,  not  allied  to  the  Indian  or  Pythagorean 
transmigration  of  souls,  which  is  quite  foreign  to  Mohamme- 
danism, but  caused  by  magic.  Many  common  stories  of  this 
kind  may  pass  for  myths  or  fables  among  the  people  them- 
selves, but  many  are  firmly  believed  by  the  majority. 

While  in  the  scientific  circles  of  our  more  civilized  countries 
man  is  held  to  be  an  ape  modified  by  natural  selection  and 
time,  among  the  Egyptians  of  the  present  day  the  ape  is  a 
metamorphosed  man.  The  baboon,  it  is  generallj^  maintained 
and  believed,  v^as  a  wicked  fellow  who  stole  the  Prophet's 
red  shoes,  and  hid  them  behind  him  under  his  coat.  The 
prophet  noticed  it,  however,  and  uttered  this  curse  over 
him:  "Thief,  may  your  form  become  a  caricature  of  that  of 
man,  and  may  your  buttocks,  above  which  my  shoes  are 
hanging,  be  coloured  red  like  them  for  all  time  coming,  in 
memory  of  your  evil  deed."  For  the  Moslims  in  general,  the 
world  properly  begins  only  with  the  Prophet,  and  no  one 
thinks  whether  the  baboon  existed  previously,  though  it  is 
frequently  figured  on  the  Egyptian  monuments.  To  keep  an 
ape  in  the  house  "  is  not  good,"  it  brings  ill  luck.  Ape's  dung, 
however,  is  a  valuable  ingredient  in  many  medicines. 

The  hyena  is  generally  regarded  as  a  vile  enchanter,  trans- 
formed by  the  anger  of  God ;  and  for  this  very  reason  its 
hair,  teeth,  skin,  and  flesh  possess  miraculous  powers.  The 
animal  having  been  slaughtered  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
Koran  (such  a  slaughtered  animal  is  always  a  rarity,  however), 
the  flesh  is  sold  in  the  market,  and  goes  ofl"  rapidly,  and  at  a 
good  price;  the  ulema,  who  are  at  the  head  of  religion,  are 
the  chief  lovers  of  it.  It  imparts  strength,  especially  masculine 
strength.  Lying  on  a  hyena's  skin  drives  away  pains  in  the 
back.     The  teeth  also  are  highly  esteemed,  and  are  used  as 


THE   ANIMALS   IN   POPULAR   BELIEF.  401 

amulets  for  young  and  old.  The  tufts  of  hair  from  the  mane 
are  particularly  prized,  and  whoever  has  a  skin  requires  to 
guard  it  well  from  the  covetous  multitude,  for  the  possession 
of  this  hair  secures  love  and  faithfulness  on  the  part  of  a 
husband  or  wife,  as  well  as  the  favour  of  the  great. 

Tlie  cunning  of  the  fox  has  caused  thousands  of  wonderful 
stories  to  pass  current  regarding  him,  but  these  are  not  believed, 
being  regarded  as  fables.  In  the  stories  Master  Heynard 
generally  plays  the  role  of  a  kadi.  One  story  may  be  given  as 
a  specimen:; — A  man  is  carrying  a  basket  of  fowls  to  market. 
A  fox  who  is  anxious  to  get  at  the  fowls  lays  himself  down 
on  the  road  and  pretends  to  be  dead.  The  man  with  the 
fowls  is  surprised,  but  passes  on.  Somewhat  farther  on  the 
man  finds  a  second  fox  lying  dead,  and  farther  on  again  a 
third.  "  Now/'  thinks  the  man,  "  three  fox  skins  are  worth 
the  trouble  of  taking  with  me  to  sell,"  so  he  sets  down  his 
basket  and  goes  back  to  pick  up  the  foxes.  Of  course  he 
finds  nothing,  and  when  he  gets  back  to  his  basket  the 
fowls  have  disappeared. 

Like  the  hyenas,  other  animals  also,  especially  injurious 
animals,  are  looked  upon  as  transformed  villains — serpents, 
scorpions,  and  the  large  pinching  ants  {My r mica)  for  instance. 
The  serpent  charmer  makes  a  business  of  enticing  out  serpents 
concealed  somewhere  in  houses,  and  summons  them  in  the 
name  of  some  of  the  patriarchs,  as  Adam,  Enoch  (Edris), 
Noah,  Abraham,  Ishmael,  and  even  David  and  Christ,  but  he 
does  not  fail  to  bring  along  with  him  a  basket  containing 
serpents.  Scorpions  are  brought  to  a  standstill  with  the  cry 
homdr,  that  is  ass,  so  as  to  let  themselves  be  killed.  People 
may  have  themselves  rendered  proof  against  the  poison  of 
scorpions  and  serpents  through  the  initiated,  but  after  this 
they  must  never  kill  one.  An  Abyssinian  slave  once  brought 
us  a  scorpion  in  his  hand,  and  on  being  told  to  do  so  dropped  it 
into  spirits  himself  After  some  days  the  same  slave  was  stung 
by  a  scorpion  and  wanted  to  get  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac.  He 
had  broken  the  conditions  laid  down. 

Another  sort  of  transformation  is  that  which  produced  the 
flat  fishes.     Moses  was  once  cooking  a  fish,  and  when  it  had 

26 


402  UPPER  EGYPT. 

been  broiled  till  it  was  brown  on  one  side,  the  fire  or  the  oil 
gave  out  and  Moses  angrily  threw  the  fish  into  the  sea 
where  although  it  had  been  half  broiled,  it  came  to  life  again, 
and  its  descendants  have  preserved  up  to  the  present  day  the 
same  peculiar  appearance,  being  white  or  colourless  on  one 
side  and  coloured  on  the  other.  In  Constantinople  a  similar 
story  is  told  of  the  flat  fishes  there,  but  in  this  case  the  actor 
was  the  Sultan  Mohammed  II.,  the  conqueror  of  Stamboul. 

To  certain  animals  instincts  and  senses  are  ascribed  for 
things  that  the  human  senses  do  not  take  cognizance  of;  for 
instance,  at  the  time  of  the  rising  of  the  Tureya  or  Pleiades, 
the  camel  is  said  to  see  this  constellation  before  it  is  visible 
to  human  eyes,  and  at  this  time  (beginning  of  June)  it  is 
said  not  to  lie  down  in  any  other  direction  than  with  its  head 
towards  the  east.  Fishes  also  are  said  to  see  this  constellation 
first. 

While  some  animals,  namely,  those  that  are  mischievous  or 
held  to  be  so,  and  those  that  are  regarded  as  game,  are  pursued 
and  killed  upon  every  opportunity,  and  others,  such  as  the 
dog  or  the  swine,  are  regarded  with  the  deepest  contempt  as 
unclean,  and  are  kept  as  far  from  the  person  as  possible, 
the  purposeless  slaughter  of  harmless  animals  is  generally 
regarded  as  a  sin.  On  one  occasion  when  we  were  preparing 
specimens  for  our  collection,  and  had  flung  away  some  worms 
and  other  marine  animals  as  useless,  a  Turk,  rude  enough 
otherwise,  carefully  picked  them  up  and  carried  them  back 
to  their  native  element.  By  strictly  orthodox  theologians 
the  formation  of  a  collection  of  animals  is  condemned;  for 
them  natural  history  is  not  a  science  but  a  mere  amusement. 
To  shoot  the  useful  and  harmless  vultures  is  looked  upon  as 
a  piece  of  great  barbarity. 

But  the  person  who  kills  the  great  black  raven  or  raven 
of  the  desert  {Corvus  umhrinvs)  does  not  get  ofl"  unpunished. 
This  bird,  called  Noah's  raven,  as  being  the  bird  that  he  sent 
out  of  the  ark  and  that  did  not  return,  is  the  uncle  of  the 
blacks,  the  Soudanese.  On  one  occasion  a  hunter  had  been 
commissioned  by  us  to  procure  a  raven,  which  he  did,  and 
after  carefully  barring  the  door,  proceeded  to  pull  it  out  Avith 


ALCHEMY.  403 

the  utmost  caution  from  the  pocket  of  his  coat.  The  aflfair 
had  got  wind,  however,  and  we  began  to  hear  the  sound  of 
kettle-drums,  accompanied  by  shrill  cries,  coming  nearer  and 
nearer  to  the  house.  In  a  short  time  the  whole  crew  of  the 
blacks  were  outside  the  door.  For  a  long  period  the  black 
Soudan  slaves  have  formed  a  union  for  semi-religious  semi- 
national  entertainments.  They  now  began  drumming,  clap- 
ping their  hands,  bellowing  and  yelling,  and  also  performed 
a  dance,  in  which  the  dancers  had  girdles  of  goats'  horns. 
On  our  asking  the  president  or  sheikh  of  the  blacks  what 
was  the  matter,  he  replied  in  a  friendly,  but  serious  and 
decided  tone,  tliat  blood-money  must  be  paid,  their  ''uncle," 
who  from  time  to  time  brought  them  news  of  their  relatives 
far  separated  from  them  in  the  Soudan,  had  been  killed,  and 
we  ourselves  were  morally  his  murderers.  The  hired  mur- 
derer in  the  meantime  had  fled,  but  was  soon  discovered  and 
brought  back  to  the  house.  We  gave  them  a  few  coppers^ 
believing  the  affair  settled,  and  went  on  with  the  skinning 
of  the  bird.  But  the  noise  before  the  house,  the  lamentations 
for  the  dead,  and  the  dance  in  his  honour  became  more  and 
more  demonstrative;  their  uncle  was  worth  more  blood-money. 
At  last,  after  long  negotiations  with  the  sheikh,  who,  from 
his  solemn  manner  of  conducting  the  business,  appeared  to 
be  really  in  earnest,  we  were  let  off*  for  three  francs.  Their 
uncle's  body,  minus  the  skin,  was  handed  over  to  the  horde, 
and  being  laid  in  a  bier  covered  with  coloured  cloths,  was 
solemnly  carried  to  the  graveyard,  accompanied  with  flags 
and  shouts  of  la  ill  A  llah,  as  if  it  were  some  person's  funeral, 
and  finally  was  formally  interred.  The  kadi  himself  having 
shot  a  raven  was  once  treated  in  a  similar  way.  At  first  he 
would  pay  nothing,  but  the  blacks  walled  up  his  house-door, 
and  at  last  he  gave  the  blood-money  demanded.  Even  a 
pasha  at  Jeddah  is  said  to  have  been  forced  to  pay  blood- 
money. 

ALCHEMY. 

Alchemy,  or  the  art  of  making  gold  from  substances  of 
little  value,  is  intimately  connected  with  popular  medicine. 


404  UPPER  EGYPT. 

There  are  still  people  who  occupy  themselves  with  it,  but 
none  of  them  have  as  yet  made  their  fortunes. 

EELIGIO-ASTRONOMICAL   FANTASIES. 

Astrology  is  practised  to  a  much  greater  extent.  The 
astronomical  conceptions  of  the  people,  and  even  of  the 
educated,  are  those  of  the  Prophet,  and  if  any  attempt  is 
made  to  impress  them  with  others,  they  shake  their  heads 
proudly  or  incredulously.  The  unfortunate  sun  still  continues 
to  revolve  every  day  from  east  to  west  round  the  earth, 
which  is  of  a  disc-shape,  and  surrounded  by  a  circular  moun- 
tain inhabited  by  the  ginn  (Mount  Kaf).  Above  it  lie  seven 
heavens  and  paradise,  through  which  flow  precious  brooks  of 
water;  here  the  believers  lead  a  life  of  rapturous  bliss  in  the 
company  of  the  virgin  houris,  ''whose  large  black  eyes 
resemble  pearls  that  are  yet  concealed  in  their  shells.''  These 
and  the  boys  of  paradise  present  them  with  cups  of  precious 
wine,  ''which  neither  causes  headache  nor  clouds  the  reason." 
On  the  other  hand  unbelievers,  condemned  by  anticipation 
from  the  beginning  of  the  world,  will  suffer  deep  down  in 
the  fire  of  hell,  howling  and  gnashing  their  teeth,  and  only 
when  they  have  led  ^  pious  life  are  the  pains  of  hell  some- 
what lessened.  The  sun  and  moon  have  their  abode  in  the 
fifth  heaven;  in  the  course  of  their  revolutions  they  rest  at 
certain  stations  (mensil).  In  the  uppermost  of  the  seven 
heavens  God  sits  upon  a  throne  held  by  four  archangels, 
namely,  Israfil,  Gabrail,  Michail,  and  Israil. 

Under  these  according  to  the  secret  books  are  the  following 
great  angels  of  heaven: — Zemzemail,  Kasfeail,  Zarfeail,  Ran- 
geail.  The  following  rule  over  the  earth: — Moshab,  Murra, 
Ahmar,  Baragan,  Shamharish,  Zaubaa,  and  Maimun.  They 
take  the  government  in  turn,  each  ruling  one  day  of  the 
week;  on  Saturday,  the  unlucky  day,  the  ruler  is  the  malig- 
nant Maimun,  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  also  Saturday 
was  the  day  of  Typhon,  or  the  evil  principle.  Each  of  these 
angels  has  as  many  attendants  as  the  Abged  can  get  num- 
bers out  of  their  names;    Moshab,   for  instance,   has  747. 


ASTEOLOGY.  405 

Other  angels  or  kings  of  the  ginn  (melek)  are — Leltahtilin, 
Mahtahtilin,  Kahtahtilin,  Fahtahtilin,  Nahtahtilin,  Gelhatah- 
tilin,  Lamakfengel — the  last  being  the  greatest.  The  initial 
letters  of  the  otliers  give  the  name  of  the  last. 

A  certain  angel  or  king  of  the  ginn  is  called  Meitataru; 
he  dwells  in  one  of  the  seven  heavens.  When  incense  is 
burned  on  the  earth  he  smells  it,  and  waving  his  rod,  he 
commands  his  subjects  to  attend  to  the  matter  and  stand  at 
the  service  of  the  person  offering  the  incense.  Another,  like 
the  Christian  ginn- king  Kim,  is  attracted  by  the  smell  of  the 
opercula  of  shells  burned  as  incense. 

Falling  stars  are  wicked  angels  or  devils  hurled  down  by 
God.  It  is  they  who  teach  men  the  black  art,  the  evil  kind 
of  magic.  Accordingly  it  is  a  matter  of  duty  for  every  be- 
liever to  say,  when  he  sees  a  shooting  star,  "I  take  refuge 
with  God  from  the  stoned  devil." 

ASTROLOGY. 

The  ever  visible  splendour  of  the  tropical  or  subtropical 
starry  firmament  is  a  powerful  inducement  to  its  study.  The 
stars  also  serve  people  in  general  as  a  nocturnal  clock;  to  the 
traveller,  and  especially  the  mariner,  they  serve  as  guides. 
As  in  these  latitudes  the  winds  have  a  very  regular  course, 
corresponding  to  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the  stars  show 
what  season  it  is,  the  seaman  is  perhaps  right  when  he  is 
afraid  of  such  and  such  a  star  in  a  certain  position  (Lahemir, 
for  instance,  when  in  the  west  at  evening),  and  looks  upon  it 
as  an  unlucky  star,  while  he  considers  others  lucky  stars. 
Such  views,  however,  lead  gradually  to  the  fantastic  domain 
of  astrology,  and  there  are  few  who  would  venture  to  deny 
the  influence  of  the  stars  upon  the  fate  of  mankind.  Both 
Christians  and  Mohammedans  occupy  themselves  with  astro- 
logy. A  special  literature  teaches  how  to  detect  this  in- 
fluence, one  of  the  books  among  others  being  "the  true  and 
accurate  book  of  the  renowned  Greek  (?)  philosopher,  Abu 
Moshaer,  the  great  astronomer."  More  important  for  this 
science,  however,  than  the  knowledge  of  the  starry  vault  is 


406  UPPER  EGYPT. 

that  of  the  Abged.  Every  letter  of  the  alphabet  corresponds 
to  a  certain  number;  B,  biduh,  for  example,  corresponds  to 
2468,  but  the  letters  are  not  arranged  as  at  present,  not  A, 
B,  T,  Th,  &c.,  but  A,  B,  G,  D  (hence  Abged). 

There  are  twelve  constellations  for  men  and  twelve  for 
women.  The  Abged  number  of  the  name  of  the  man  on  whose 
behalf  astrology  is  to  be  consulted  has  to  be  found,  together 
with  the  name  of  his  mother.  From  this  number  subtract 
1212,  and  if  the  remainder  is  1,  the  Ram  is  his  constellation 
and  his  planet  Mars;  his  temperament,  therefore,  is  the  san- 
guineous. If  2  is  the  remainder,  his  constellation  is  the 
Bull  and  his  planet  Venus;  his  temperament  is  "earthy,"  that 
is,  phlegmatic;  and  so  on.  This  art  teaches  also  to  know 
whether  a  sick  person  will  die,  whether  something  lost  will 
be  found,  an  affair  turn  out  well,  or  what  will  be  the  general 
course  of  the  coming  year.  Many  earn  their  bread  by  making 
such  calculations,  and  there  is  no  lack  of  believers  even  among 
the  higher  ranks;  numbers  of  people  allow  themselves  to  be 
guided  in  matters  of  the  highest  importance  by  these  astro- 
logers and  calculators,  who  often  have  the  effi'ontery  to  take 
a  sum  of  money  in  advance,  and  when  the  time  arrives  for 
the  fulfilment  of  their  prophecy  they  are  far  enough  away. 

GEOMANTISTS  AND   GYPSIES. 

Geomantists,  who  practise  the  darh  er-ra7nl,  are  generally 
Soudanese.  At  every  yearly  market  may  be  seen  a  few  of 
these  black  and  half-naked  prophets  squatting  on  the  ground, 
making  holes  and  lines  in  the  sand,  throwing  upon  these  a 
few  stones  as  dice,  and  predicting  therefrom  for  a  few  coppers 
the  future  joys  and  sorrows  of  the  people.  Gypsy  women, 
too,  may  be  seen  sitting  there,  telling  fortunes  in  their  usual 
manner  by  the  lines  on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  or  by  shells, 
which  here  serve  instead  of  a  pack  of  cards. 

THE  FUTURE. 

Of  all  prophecies  those  of  the  Prophet  are  the  most  import- 
ant.   They  are  not  openly  set  forth  in  "the  perspicuous  book," 


DAY    OF   JUDGMENT.  407 

but  the  wise  understand  how  to  extract  them  from  it,  and 
everyone  knows  and  believes  in  them,  Islam  will  complete 
a  thousand  but  not  thousands  of  years  (el  elf  u  la  el  uMf) ; 
others  say  not  twelve  hundred  years.  We  are  now  at  1292 
after  the  flight  (or  emigration,  as  the  Mohammedans  will  have 
it  that  Hejra  should  be  translated).  Accordingly  the  world 
must  soon  come  to  an  end,  and  the  signs  of  this  are  always 
increasing,  witness  the  railways,  telegraphs,  and  balloons, 
and  the  ever-increasing  preponderance  of  the  Franks  and 
Frankish  ideas.  Towards  the  end  of  this  period  the  world 
will  be  in  a  sad  condition — sovereigns  w411  make  war  against 
each  other,  there  will  be  great  dearth,  unbelief  and  profligacy 
will  prevail.  The  hordes  of  the  king  of  Abyssinia  will  descend 
from  their  mountains,  and  will  subdue  the  sacred  land  of 
Islam  and  Egypt.  The  Mohammedan  world  accordingly 
watched  with  the  most  lively  interest  the  last  Abyssinian 
wars  with  England  and  Egypt.  The  sultan  will  be  driven 
out  of  Constantinople,  and  will  take  refuge  in  Egypt.  Then 
comes  the  Muhdi^  (Reneg  of  the  Koran?);  from  his  Abged 
number  (4253)  he  should  be  already  born.  The  Muhdi,  a 
kind  of  Messias,  will  be  sprung  of  an  obscure  family  in  Yemen, 
but  will  raise  himself  by  his  abilities,  not,  however  till  his 
fortieth  year,  and  will  soon  acquire  dominion  over  the  whole 
world.  During  his  reign  Mohammedans  and  Christians  will 
be  reconciled,  and  all  men  will  share  their  goods  like  brothers. 
An  antichrist  will,  however,  appear,  and  attempt  to  sow  mis- 
trust and  dissension,  but  will  be  slain  by  Christ,  who  will  now 
come  upon  the  scene.  After  this  the  Moslimin  will  all  die  of 
plague  and  other  diseases,  and  only  Christians  remain  alive. 
These  finally  die  also,  and  the  earth  is  no  longer  inhabited  by 
men. 

DAY   OF  JUDGMENT. 

At  the  end  of  all  things  the  archangel  Israil  blows  his 
trumpet,  and  the  whole  earth  becomes  a  firm  and  level  field.  A 

^  A  false  Muhdi  who  gained  many  adherents,  and  in  a  short  time  set  all  Egypt 
in  an  uproar,  was  shot  about  ten  years  ago.  He  was  the  Hag  Theyib  of  Gau 
in  Upper  Egypt. 


408  UPPER   EGYPT. 

rain  falls  which  causes  the  remains  of  the  dead  of  all  times  and 
peoples  to  begin  to  grow,  like  the  seeds  of  a  plant.  As  soon 
as  the  bodies  are  again  formed,  all  human  souls,  who  from  the 
time  of  their  death  had  been  collected  in  a  well  at  Jerusalem, ^ 
rise  and  reanimate  their  respective  bodies,  and  the  day  of 
judgment  comes.  The  judgment,  as  we  are  assured  by 
authorities  on  the  subject,  will  be  held  at  Damietta  in 
Egypt! 

'  Regarding  the  abode  of  the  souls  between  death  and  resurrection  there  are 
various  views. 


END. 


OLASGOW:   W.  G.  BLACKIE  ANP  CO.,  TRINTERS.  VII.LAFIEIJ5. 


4 


CORRECTIONS. 


Page  96.  Line  15  from  top:  for  "chasing  a  humble-bee,"  read  "driving  a 
humming-top." 
„   114.  Line  15  from  bottom:  for  "miners,"  read  "raftsmen." 
„    131.  Line  18  from  top:  for  "bamujeh,"  read  "bamiyeh." 
„    141.  Delete  line  23  from  top. 
„    144.  Line  17  from  top:  delete  "  Forskal  and." 
„      „     Line  18  from  top :  delete  "  and  myrtles." 
„   151.  Line  7  from  top :  after  "seine,"  insert  '*  {Gongylus  ocellatus),"  and  delete 

"which  was  formerly  used  in  medicine." 
„    172.  Line  5  from  bottom:  for  "scientific,"  read  "  conscientious." 
„    182.  Line  7  from  bottom :  for  ''Inula  arahica f '  read  "Pulicaria  inuloides.'" 
„    184.  Line  4  from  top;  for  "five,"  read  "fifty." 
„    204.  Line  8  from  bottom:  for  "like,"  read  "unlike." 
„    229.  Line  7  from  top :  for  "  Ambiga,"  read  "  Ambagi." 
„    233.  Line  9  from  bottom :  for  "  400,"  read  "  4000." 
„   250.  Line  12  from  top:  for  "  Bedya"  read  "  Bedja."" 
„    287.  Line  14  from  bottom:  for  "he,"  read  "it." 
„    588.  Middle:  for  "atoll,"  read  "lagoon." 
„   301.  Line  12  from  top:  for  "for,"  read  "  till  after." 


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ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS. 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW. 


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FEB  0  5  2004 


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DEC  05 '03  -2!L2^iVi 


FORM  NO.  DD  8 
24M    11-02    . 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
Berkeley,  California  94720-6500 


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